bichir: …them in their own clade, Cladistia, a sister group to subclass Chondrostei.

evolution: Maximum parsimony methods: …parsimony methods are related to cladistics, a very formalistic theory of taxonomic classification, extensively used with morphological and paleontological data. The critical feature in cladistics is the identification of derived shared traits, called synapomorphic traits. A synapomorphic trait is shared by some taxa but not others because the former inherited…

Cyperaceae: Evolution and classification: …Rhynchospora and its allies and Cladium and its allies are derived by a reduction in the number of flowers per spikelet and a sterilization of lowermost or uppermost flowers, as well as by the conversion of some bisexual flowers to staminate only; in Rhynchospora, for example, male flowers are above…

Everglades: Natural environment: …of it is covered with saw grass (a sedge, the edges of which are covered with minute sharp teeth), which grows to a height of 4 to 10 feet (1.2 to 3 metres). Open water is sometimes found. Slight changes in the elevation of the land and the water’s salt…

crustacean: Annotated classification: Suborder Cladocopina Silurian to present; only 3 pairs of postoral appendages; marine. Subclass Podocopa Order Platycopida Ordovician to present; antennae biramous; 4 pairs of postoral limbs; marine. Order Podocopida

celery-top pine: …performed mainly by deciduous leathery phylloclades (flattened leaf-like branches) that resemble celery leaflets.

fish: Chondrichthyes: sharks and rays: …fishes, the Cladoselachiformes and the Cladodontiformes, became extinct by the end of the Permian, about 251 million years ago, while the freshwater order Xenacanthiformes lasted until the end of the Triassic, about 200 million years ago. The final Devonian order, Heterodontiformes, still has surviving members.

evolution: Evolution within a lineage and by lineage splitting: …within a lineage, or by cladogenesis, in which a lineage splits into two or more separate lines. Anagenetic evolution has doubled the size of the human cranium over the course of two million years; in the lineage of the horse it has reduced the number of toes from four to…

Cladonia, genus of lichens that includes those species commonly known as cup lichen, reindeer moss, and British soldiers

cup lichen: Boreal cup lichen (C. borealis) has red cups on a pale green thallus and is native to northern North America.

cup lichen: Mealy pixie cup lichen (C. chlorophaea) has small green goblet-shaped cups, often covered with dustlike propagules. Boreal cup lichen (C. borealis) has red cups on a pale green thallus and is native to northern North America.

British soldiers, (Cladonia cristatella), species of lichen with erect hollow branches that end in distinctive red fruiting bodies from which the popular name is derived. It is greener and redder in early spring than at other times. It occurs on the ground or on dead wood, and its diminutive size

cup lichen: The pixie cup lichen (Cladonia pyxidata) has small funnel-shaped cups and grows about 2.5 cm (1 inch) high. Mealy pixie cup lichen (C. chlorophaea) has small green goblet-shaped cups, often covered with dustlike propagules. Boreal cup lichen (C. borealis) has red cups on a pale green…

reindeer lichen, (Cladonia rangiferina), a fruticose (bushy, branched) lichen found in great abundance in Arctic lands. The lichen covers immense areas in northern tundra and taiga ecosystems and serves as pasture for reindeer, moose, caribou, and musk oxen. In Scandinavia it has been used in the

Cladophora, genus of green algae (family Cladophoraceae) found growing attached to rocks or timbers submerged in shallow lakes and streams; there are some marine species. Several species, including Cladophora glomerata, are considered a nuisance in recreational bodies of water. In the Great Lakes

Cladophora: Several species, including Cladophora glomerata, are considered a nuisance in recreational bodies of water. In the Great Lakes of North America, the overgrowth of these algae has been associated with the rise of invasive zebra mussels.

celery-top pine: …performed mainly by deciduous leathery phylloclades (flattened leaf-like branches) that resemble celery leaflets.

stilt: The banded, or red-breasted, stilt (Cladorhynchus leucocephala), of Australia, is white with brown wings, reddish breast band, and yellowish legs.

Cladoselache, genus of extinct sharks, known from fossilized remains in Upper Devonian rocks (formed 385–359 million years ago) in North America and Europe. Cladoselache is a good representative of early sharks. Unlike larger forms, its mouth opened at the front of the skull, rather than beneath

chondrichthyan: Evolution: The other order, Cladoselachii, consisted of marine fishes known only from fossils of the late Middle Devonian, Carboniferous, and Early Permian periods. In the members of this order, each tooth had a long base composed of a bonelike tissue. From this bonelike tissue, three conical cusps, a tall…

yellowwood: The name yellowwood also refers to a genus of flowering plants, Cladrastis, with about six species in the legume family (Fabaceae). One species, C. kentukea, grows in eastern North America, and the remaining species occur in East Asia. Plants of Cladrastis are medium-sized trees with usually smooth…

yellowwood: One species, C. kentukea, grows in eastern North America, and the remaining species occur in East Asia. Plants of Cladrastis are medium-sized trees with usually smooth gray bark, deciduous pinnately compound leaves, and large pendant inflorescences of attractive white and yellow pealike flowers. Some members of the…

Ernest Claes was a popular Flemish novelist and short-story writer who made his mark with De Witte (1920; Whitey), a regional novel about a playful, prankish youngster. The partly autobiographical tale was made into a film in 1934 and again in 1980. Claes treated several subjects. Animals and

Ernest Claes was a popular Flemish novelist and short-story writer who made his mark with De Witte (1920; Whitey), a regional novel about a playful, prankish youngster. The partly autobiographical tale was made into a film in 1934 and again in 1980. Claes treated several subjects. Animals and

Willy Claes is a Belgian statesman who served as secretary-general (1994–95) of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). After studying at the Free University of Brussels, Claes was elected to the Hasselt City Council in 1964. A Flemish Socialist, Claes was elected to the national parliament

Pieter Claesz was a Dutch painter who achieved a striking simplicity and atmospheric quality in still-life representations. Avoiding the crowded compositions and strong local coloring of the Mannerist tradition, he concentrated on the monochrome “breakfast piece,” the depiction of a simple meal set

Claflin University, private historically Black institution founded in 1869 by Methodist missionaries to provide education for formerly enslaved men and women. Located in Orangeburg, South Carolina, 75 miles (120 km) west of Charleston, the university is named for Lee Claflin, a prominent Boston

Victoria Woodhull was an unconventional American reformer, who at various times championed such diverse causes as women’s suffrage, free love, mystical socialism, and the Greenback movement. She was also the first woman to run for the U.S. presidency (1872). Born into a poor and eccentric family,

John Claggart, fictional character, the sinister master-at-arms aboard the ship Indomitable in the novel Billy Budd, Foretopman (written 1888–91, posthumously published 1924), the last work by Herman Melville. Claggart, jealous of Budd’s cheerful personality and masculine beauty, falsely accuses

Liz Claiborne was an American fashion designer who revolutionized the women’s apparel industry in the U.S. as the head designer and cofounder (with her husband, Arthur Ortenberg, and partners, Leonard Boxer and Jerome Chazen) in 1976 of the company that bears her name. At a time when career women

Narragansett Bay: Claiborne Pell (Newport) Bridge, which traverses the bay to connect Rhode and Conanicut islands, is New England’s longest bridge at 11,247 feet (3,428 metres) in length. Since colonial times the bay has been an active shipping centre, the chief ports being Providence (capital of Rhode…

Liz Claiborne was an American fashion designer who revolutionized the women’s apparel industry in the U.S. as the head designer and cofounder (with her husband, Arthur Ortenberg, and partners, Leonard Boxer and Jerome Chazen) in 1976 of the company that bears her name. At a time when career women

Liz Claiborne was an American fashion designer who revolutionized the women’s apparel industry in the U.S. as the head designer and cofounder (with her husband, Arthur Ortenberg, and partners, Leonard Boxer and Jerome Chazen) in 1976 of the company that bears her name. At a time when career women

William Claiborne was an American colonial trader and public official. Claiborne immigrated to Virginia in 1621 as a surveyor for the colony, and in 1626 he was appointed secretary of state for Virginia and a member of the governor’s royal council. The following year he received a license to trade

Lake Simcoe, lake, southeastern Ontario, Canada. It lies between Lake Huron’s Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario, 40 miles (65 km) north of Toronto. Fed by numerous small streams and joined by the Trent Canal, the lake, 287 square miles (743 square km) in area, drains northward through Couchiching Lake

Celtic literature: Developments of the 18th century: …Bhreitheanis (“Day of Judgment”) and An Claigeann (“The Skull”) are impressive and sombre and show considerable imaginative power.

res judicata, (Latin: “a thing adjudged”), a thing or matter that has been finally juridically decided on its merits and cannot be litigated again between the same parties. The term is often used in reference to the maxim that repeated reexamination of adjudicated disputes is not in any society’s

Janette Turner Hospital: In the mystery The Claimant (2014), Hospital explored issues of identity and social class. She published A Very Proper Death (1990) under the name Alex Juniper.

joinder and impleader: Joinder of claims is the assertion by a party of two or more claims based on different legal premises (e.g., contract and tort). Joinder of parties is the assertion of claims for or against parties in addition to a single plaintiff and single defendant. Impleading…

United States Court of Federal Claims, court established by act of Congress of October 1, 1982, to handle cases in which the United States or any of its branches, departments, or agencies is a defendant. The court has jurisdiction over money claims against the United States based on the U.S.

insurance: Limits of liability: …on a per-occurrence or a claims-made basis. In the former, which gives the most comprehensive coverage, the policy in force in year one covers a negligent act that took place in year one, no matter when a claim is made. If the policy is made on a claims-made basis, the…

bergamasca: …were inspired by Verlaine’s poem “Clair de lune,” in which the name of the bygone dance bergamasque evokes a dreamy image.

Clair de lune, the third segment in Suite bergamasque, a four-movement composition for piano by French composer Claude Debussy, begun in 1890 and revised and published in 1905. The gentle “Clair de lune” provides an elegant contrast to the suite’s sprightly second and fourth movements. One of

René Clair was a French director of silent films and talking pictures whose productions were noted for humor and burlesque and also often for fantasy or surrealism. Among his major films were Paris qui dort (1924), Un Chapeau de paille d’Italie (1927), Sous les toits de Paris (1930), Le Million

clairvoyance: …mean seeing or hearing (clairaudience) the spirits of the dead that are said to surround the living. Research in parapsychology—such as testing a subject’s ability to predict the order of cards in a shuffled deck—has yet to provide conclusive support for the existence of clairvoyance.

Clairaut’s equation, in mathematics, a differential equation of the form y = x (dy/dx) + f(dy/dx) where f(dy/dx) is a function of dy/dx only. The equation is named for the 18th-century French mathematician and physicist Alexis-Claude Clairaut, who devised it. In 1736, together with Pierre-Louis de

Clairaut’s equation, in mathematics, a differential equation of the form y = x (dy/dx) + f(dy/dx) where f(dy/dx) is a function of dy/dx only. The equation is named for the 18th-century French mathematician and physicist Alexis-Claude Clairaut, who devised it. In 1736, together with Pierre-Louis de

Clairaut’s equation: …18th-century French mathematician and physicist Alexis-Claude Clairaut, who devised it. In 1736, together with Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis, he took part in an expedition to Lapland that was undertaken for the purpose of estimating a degree of the meridian, and on his return he published his treatise Théorie de la figure…

Edwidge Danticat: The novel Claire of the Sea Light (2013) spirals outward from the disappearance of a young girl to tell the stories of the friends and neighbours searching for her in the Haitian seaside town of Ville Rose. Mama’s Nightingale: A Story of Immigration and Separation (2015) is…

Isabelle Huppert: Academy Award nomination and later films: …La caméra de Claire (Claire’s Camera), in which she played a music teacher who befriends a number of strangers while visiting the Cannes film festival. The next year she had a role in Matthew Weiner’s anthology series The Romanoffs as a movie director who believes she is a descendent…

Éric Rohmer: …Le Genou de Claire (1970; Claire’s Knee), was named best film at the San Sebastián International Film Festival and received two awards as the year’s best French film—the Prix Louis-Delluc and the Prix Méliès. Rohmer completed the series in 1972 with the release of L’Amour l’après-midi (Chloe in the Afternoon),…

Charles de Croix, count von Clerfayt was an Austrian field marshal who was one of the more successful of the Allied generals campaigning against Revolutionary France in the early 1790s. Clerfayt entered the Austrian army in 1753, distinguished himself during the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), and also

Haunted Summer of 1816: The group in Cologny: …infant son and Godwin’s stepsister, Claire Clairmont.

Mlle Clairon was a leading actress of the Comédie-Française who created many parts in the plays of Voltaire, Jean-François Marmontel, Bernard-Joseph Saurin, and others. She began her career as a soubrette but made her debut at the Comédie-Française in 1743 as Phèdre in the tragedy by Racine. She

Irish harp, traditional harp of medieval Ireland and Scotland, characterized by a huge soundbox carved from a solid block of wood; a heavy, curved neck; and a deeply outcurved forepillar—a form shared by the medieval Scottish harp. It was designed to bear great tension from the heavy brass strings

Clairvaux, village, northeastern France, in Aube département, Champagne-Ardenne région, east-southeast of Troyes. Its abbey, founded in 1115 by the French churchman and mystic St. Bernard of Clairvaux, became a centre of the Cistercian order. All that remains of the original abbey is a large

St. Bernard of Clairvaux: Founder and abbot of Clairvaux: “Whence arises the love of God? From God. And what is the measure of this love? To love without measure.”—St. Bernard of Clairvaux

clairvoyance, knowledge of information not necessarily known to any other person, not obtained by ordinary channels of perceiving or reasoning—thus a form of extrasensory perception (ESP). Spiritualists also use the term to mean seeing or hearing (clairaudience) the spirits of the dead that are

carboxylic acid: Reactions: …in a reaction called the Claisen condensation.

Johann Klaj was a German poet who helped make mid-17th-century Nürnberg a centre of German literature. Klaj studied theology at the University of Wittenberg and then went to Nürnberg, where, with Georg Philipp Harsdörfer, he founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Pegnesischer Blumenorden

clam, in general, any member of the invertebrate class Bivalvia—mollusks with a bivalved shell (i.e., one with two separate sections). More than 15,000 living species of bivalves are known, of which about 500 live in fresh water; the others occur in all seas. Bivalves usually live on or in sandy or

clam shrimp, any member of the crustacean order Conchostraca (subclass Branchiopoda), a group of about 200 species inhabiting shallow freshwater lakes, ponds, and temporary pools throughout the world. Clam shrimps are so called because their entire body is contained within a bivalved shell

rag worm, any of a group of mostly marine or shore worms of the class Polychaeta (phylum Annelida). A few species live in fresh water. Other common names include mussel worm, pileworm, and sandworm. Rag worms vary in length from 2.5 to 90 cm (1 inch to 3 feet); they are commonly brown, bright red,

cuculiform: Brood parasitism: The great spotted cuckoo has an egg pattern mimicking that of the magpie (Pica pica), its usual host in southern Europe. In Africa, where it is apparently a recent colonist, this cuckoo exhibits what has been called an “evolutionary escape from specialization.” Its new hosts, certain…

clambake, seafood picnic traditional in the New England region of the United States. Early settlers on the Atlantic coast adopted and elaborated the practice from the coastal Indians, who steamed shellfish over hot stones under a covering of seaweed. Clambakes, best undertaken on a large scale,

Harold Peary: …he appeared in the film Clambake (1967). Peary continued to perform on radio and TV into the 1970s.

Coleoptera: Annotated classification: Family Clambidae (fringed-wing beetles) Small, hairy; in decaying plant material; about 30 species; worldwide distribution; sometimes placed in Staphylinoidea. Family Decliniidae 1 genus (Declinia); found in eastern Russia and Japan. Family Eucinetidae

clammyweed, (Polanisia trachysperma), North American herb of the Cleome genus of the family Cleomaceae, closely related to the mustard family, Brassicaceae. The plant is 60 cm (2 feet) tall and has leaves that give off a foul odour when bruised. The stems and three-parted leaves are hairy and

brick and tile: Firing and cooling: The clamp kiln is an improvement over the scove kiln in that the exterior walls are permanent, with openings at the bottom to permit firing of the tunnels.

Robert Clampett was one of the top directors at the Warner Bros. cartoon studio and the creator of the Beany and Cecil television series. Clampett joined Leon Schlesinger’s fledgling animation unit on the Warner Bros. lot in 1933. In 1936 he became part of director Tex Avery’s innovative animation

Robert Clampett was one of the top directors at the Warner Bros. cartoon studio and the creator of the Beany and Cecil television series. Clampett joined Leon Schlesinger’s fledgling animation unit on the Warner Bros. lot in 1933. In 1936 he became part of director Tex Avery’s innovative animation

Amy Clampitt was an American poet whose work won critical acclaim for its evocation of the natural world. After graduating from Grinnell College (B.A., 1941), Clampitt worked as a reference librarian and as an editor, publishing her first book of poetry, Multitudes, Multitudes (1973), at her own

power shovel: The clamshell is a bucket with two hinged jaws carried by a crane suspended from the boom by two lines: one raises and lowers the bucket, and the other pulls the jaws together against gravity for digging action. It is used chiefly for deep, narrow excavations,…

dredge: A grab, or clamshell, dredge lowers, closes, and raises a single bucket by means of flexible cables. In operation the bucket is dropped to the bottom, where it bites because of its weight and the action of the bucket-closing mechanism. A grab dredge can work at…

undersea exploration: Exploration of the seafloor and the Earth’s crust: …of such devices is the clamshell snapper, which is used to obtain small samples of the superficial layers of bottom sediments. Clamshell snappers come in two basic varieties. One measures 76 centimetres in length, weighs roughly 27 kilograms (one kilogram = 2.2 pounds), and is constructed of stainless steel. The…

clan, kin group used as an organizational device in many traditional societies. Membership in a clan is traditionally defined in terms of descent from a common ancestor. This descent is usually unilineal, or derived only through the male (patriclan) or the female (matriclan) line. Normally, but not

Ireland: Early political history: …northern Uí Néill, and the Clan Cholmáin, of the southern Uí Néill, alternated as kings of Ireland from 734 to 1002, a fact that suggests a formal arrangement between the two septs (i.e., descendants of a common ancestor). Inevitably, claims to a high kingship came to be contested by the…

Jean Auel: The Clan of the Cave Bear (1980) introduces the main character, Ayla, a blonde blue-eyed Cro-Magnon child who is orphaned and then adopted into a foreign clan of people. The novel follows Ayla as she tries to assimilate with that Neanderthal clan, some of whom…

Turlough Luineach O’Neill, earl of Clanconnell was the earl of Clanconnell and the chief of Tyrone, successor to his cousin Shane O’Neill. Making professions of loyalty to Elizabeth I of England, he sought to strengthen his position by alliance with the O’Donnells, MacDonnells, and MacQuillans.

Tom Clancy was an American novelist who created the techno-thriller—a suspenseful novel that relies on extensive knowledge of military technology and espionage. Clancy attended Loyola University in Baltimore (B.A. in English, 1969) and then worked as an insurance agent. His first novel was the

Tom Clancy was an American novelist who created the techno-thriller—a suspenseful novel that relies on extensive knowledge of military technology and espionage. Clancy attended Loyola University in Baltimore (B.A. in English, 1969) and then worked as an insurance agent. His first novel was the

family law: The public interest: …to combat the danger of clandestine marriages, which were possible under the old law in Europe and England by some form of mutual consent. In addition to direct proof of consent, a clandestine marriage could be established by engagement followed by sexual intercourse (matrimonium subsequente copula) or by habit and…

George Colman the Elder: Colman collaborated with Garrick on The Clandestine Marriage (1766), a play blending sentiment with satire, which is still stage-worthy. In 1767 Colman bought a quarter share in Covent Garden theatre, London, which he managed for seven years, during which time he appreciably raised the standard of acting and of drama.…

anseriform: Locomotion: Long-tailed, or old squaw, ducks (Clangula hyemalis) have been caught in fishing nets more than 50 metres (160 feet) deep, but this is exceptional; most species do not dive much below 6 metres (20 feet). They normally remain below for less than 30 seconds, occasionally up to…

Chiana River, river in central Italy. The Chiana River rises near Arezzo, flows between the Arno and Tiber rivers, and passes through a wide valley (the Chiana Valley) and a lake (Chiusi Lake). It receives the Paglia River near Orvieto and has a total length of about 50 miles (80 km). In

Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th marquess of Lansdowne was an Irish nobleman and British diplomat who served as viceroy of Canada and of India, secretary for war, and foreign secretary. The eldest son of the 4th marquess, he attended Eton and, on the death of his father, succeeded at age

William Reid Clanny was a physician who invented one of the first safety lamps (1813) for use in coal mines; some of its features were incorporated in Sir Humphry Davy’s safety lamp, which was the precursor of modern safety lamps. Educated at the University of Edinburgh (M.D.), Clanny served with

Ulick Burke, marquess and 5th earl of Clanricard was one of the few Irish Roman Catholic magnates to support the Royalist cause in Ireland against the Parliamentarians during the English Civil Wars. The son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde (created earl of St. Albans in 1628), Ulick Burke

Ulick Burke, marquess and 5th earl of Clanricard was one of the few Irish Roman Catholic magnates to support the Royalist cause in Ireland against the Parliamentarians during the English Civil Wars. The son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde (created earl of St. Albans in 1628), Ulick Burke

Ulick Burke, marquess and 5th earl of Clanricard was one of the few Irish Roman Catholic magnates to support the Royalist cause in Ireland against the Parliamentarians during the English Civil Wars. The son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde (created earl of St. Albans in 1628), Ulick Burke

The Birth of a Nation, landmark silent film starring Lillian Gish, released in 1915, that was the first blockbuster Hollywood hit. It was the longest and most-profitable film then produced and the most artistically advanced film of its day. It secured both the future of feature-length films and the

The Birth of a Nation: Plot, production, and themes: Based on the novel The Clansman (1905) by Thomas Dixon, the two-part epic traces the impact of the Civil War on two families: the Stonemans of the North and the Camerons of the South, each on separate sides of the conflict. The first half of the film is set…

Clanton, city, seat of Chilton county, central Alabama, U.S., near the Coosa River, about 45 miles (70 km) northwest of Montgomery. Originally called Goose Pond, the town was laid out in 1870 and renamed for James H. Clanton, a Confederate general in the American Civil War. Peach growing is the

Wyatt Earp: …local outlaw gang led by Ike Clanton had escalated. The conflict resulted in the celebrated gunfight at the O.K. Corral (October 26, 1881), pitting the Clanton gang against three Earp brothers (Virgil, Wyatt, and Morgan) and Doc Holliday. Three of the outlaws were killed, but Ike and another member escaped.…

Sir Thomas Clanvowe was an English courtier and poet, the reputed author of The Cuckoo and the Nightingale, a poetic debate about love, long attributed to Geoffrey Chaucer. The poem is a traditional dialogue between the two birds on the power of love, with delicate and attractive descriptions of

African cypress: Clanwilliam cedar, or Cape cedar (W. cedarbergensis), is a tree 6 to 18 metres (20 to 59 feet) tall with wide-spreading branches that is found in the Cederberg Mountains of Western Cape province, South Africa; the species is also listed as critically endangered.

gonorrhea, sexually transmitted disease characterized principally by inflammation of the mucous membranes of the genital tract and urethra. It is caused by the gonococcus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae—a bacterium with a predilection for the type of mucous membranes found in the genitourinary tract and

the Guess Who: Post-Bachman years: hits “Clap for the Wolfman” and “Star Baby.” Guitarist Domenic Troiano, known for his work with Ronnie Hawkins and the James Gang, replaced Winter and McDougall and became Cummings’s songwriting partner for Flavours and Power in the Music (both 1975). Cummings then left the band after…

Édouard Claparède was a psychologist who conducted exploratory research in the fields of child psychology, educational psychology, concept formation, problem solving, and sleep. One of the most influential European exponents of the functionalist school of psychology, he is particularly remembered

clapboard, type of board bevelled toward one edge, used to clad the exterior of a frame building. Clapboards are attached horizontally, each one overlapping the next one down. They are six to eight inches in width, diminishing from about a 58 inch thickness at the lower edge to a fine upper edge