Delhi: City layout: Conversely, the Civil Lines (residential areas originally built by the British for senior officers) in the north and New Delhi in the south embody an element of relative openness, characterized by green grass, trees, and a sense of order.

Civil List, in the United Kingdom, the list of sums appropriated annually by Parliament to pay the expenses of the sovereign and his or her household. The sums are charged to the government’s Consolidated Fund and audited by the treasury. The custom of the Civil List dates to 1689, when Parliament,

business organization: Partnerships: …between kinds of partnership in civil law—one that has no equivalent in Anglo-American common-law countries—is that between civil and commercial partnerships. This distinction depends on whether the purposes for which the partnership is formed fall within the list of commercial activities in the country’s commercial code. These codes always make…

Western philosophy: The materialism of Thomas Hobbes: …(2) moral philosophy, and (3) civil philosophy. Physics is the science of the motions and actions of physical bodies conceived in terms of cause and effect. Moral philosophy (or, more accurately, psychology) is the detailed study of “the passions and perturbations of the mind”—that is, how minds are “moved” by…

procedural law: Civil procedure: The rules of every procedural system reflect choices between worthy goals. Different systems, for example, may primarily seek truth, or fairness between the parties, or a speedy resolution, or a consistent application of legal principles. Sometimes these goals will be compatible with each…

procedural law: English common law: …adopt (subject to congressional veto) Rules of Civil Procedure for the federal district courts, though some matters, such as subject-matter jurisdiction, remained governed by acts of Congress. There were similar developments in many of the states and also in England and Wales. At present most U.S. states, even those that…

civil religion, a public profession of faith that aims to inculcate political values and that prescribes dogma, rites, and rituals for citizens of a particular country. This definition of civil religion remains consistent with its first sustained theoretical treatment, in Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s

civil rights, guarantees of equal social opportunities and equal protection under the law, regardless of race, religion, or other personal characteristics. Examples of civil rights include the right to vote, the right to a fair trial, the right to government services, the right to a public

African Americans: The civil rights movement: The Civil Rights Act of 1957, the first federal civil rights legislation to be passed since 1875, authorized the federal government to take legal measures to prevent a citizen from being denied voting rights.

Papish v. Board of Curators of the University of Missouri: Facts of the case: …injunctive relief pursuant to the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (a law that was enacted to fight discrimination against African Americans during Reconstruction), asserting that she was expelled for activities protected by the First Amendment. The district court found in favour of the university, and the Court of Appeals for…

civil rights: Civil rights movements across the globe: …of legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which established a commission designed to investigate the persistence of the “glass ceiling” that has prevented women from advancing to top management positions in the workplace.

Civil Rights Act, (1964), comprehensive U.S. legislation intended to end discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. It is often called the most important U.S. law on civil rights since Reconstruction (1865–77) and is a hallmark of the American civil rights movement. Title I

In early January 1866 U.S. Senate Judiciary Chairman Lyman Trumbull from Illinois introduced the first federal civil rights bill in American history, as part of a Republican legislative program designed to shore up the objectives of the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill (passed in March 1865) and implement

Civil Rights Act of 1875, U.S. legislation, and the last of the major Reconstruction statutes, which guaranteed African Americans equal treatment in public transportation and public accommodations and service on juries. The U.S. Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights

The Civil Rights Act remains one of the most important pieces of legislation in American history. The act, signed into law on July 2, 1964, by Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, was a major breakthrough in the fight against discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. spotlight, united

Civil Rights Cases, five legal cases that the U.S. Supreme Court consolidated (because of their similarity) into a single ruling on October 15, 1883, in which the court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional and thus spurred Jim Crow laws that codified the previously private,

Civil Rights Congress (CRC), civil rights organization founded in Detroit in 1946 by William Patterson, a civil rights attorney and a leader of the Communist Party USA. The organization’s membership was drawn mainly from working-class and unemployed African Americans and left-wing whites. At its

Maya Lin: The Civil Rights Memorial was dedicated in Montgomery, Alabama, in November 1989.

Sadie Tanner Mossell Alexander: …a member of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights (1946). She helped found and served as national secretary (1943) of the National Bar Association, an association chiefly composed of black attorneys.

civil service, the body of government officials who are employed in civil occupations that are neither political nor judicial. In most countries the term refers to employees selected and promoted on the basis of a merit and seniority system, which may include examinations. In earlier times, when

public administration: The British Empire: The Civil Service Commission was established in 1855, and during the next 30 years patronage was gradually eliminated. The two original classes were increased to four, and some specialized branches were amalgamated to become the Scientific Civil Service. The new civil service managed to attract to…

Helen Hamilton Gardener: Civil Service Commission, the highest federal position occupied by a woman to that time. She served until her death five years later.

Confucianism: The Confucianization of politics: …entering government service through the examinations administered by the state. In short, those with a Confucian education began to staff the bureaucracy. In the year 58 all government schools were required to make sacrifices to Confucius, and in 175 the court had the approved version of the Classics, which had…

civil society, dense network of groups, communities, networks, and ties that stand between the individual and the modern state. This modern definition of civil society has become a familiar component of the main strands of contemporary liberal and democratic theorizing. In addition to its

procedural law: Convergence of civil- and common-law procedure: …own; rather, they decide only claims brought forward by the parties and normally only on the basis of evidence proposed by them. Indeed, in practice they give the parties much of the responsibility for suggesting lines of proof. Nor do judges in common-law countries always play merely the role of…

Seventh Amendment: …formally established the rules governing civil trials. The amendment’s objective was to preserve a distinction between the responsibilities of the courts (such as deciding matters of law) and those of juries (such as deciding matters of fact).

civil union, legal recognition of the committed, marriagelike partnership of two individuals. Typically, the civil registration of their commitment provides the couple with legal benefits that approach or are equivalent to those of marriage, such as rights of inheritance, hospital visitation,

Iron Man: From Armor Wars to the silver screen: …a major role in Marvel’s Civil War (2006–07) event, and he briefly served as the director of the law-enforcement agency S.H.I.E.L.D.

civil war, a violent conflict between a state and one or more organized non-state actors in the state’s territory. Civil wars are thus distinguished from interstate conflicts (in which states fight other states), violent conflicts or riots not involving states (sometimes labeled intercommunal

Alex Garland: Civil War, Warfare, and 28 Years Later: …about films of recent years, Civil War (2024), which imagines a near-future in which the United States is in the throes of a modern-day internecine war after 19 states have seceded. This time Offerman plays an authoritarian three-term president, and Kirsten Dunst stars as a veteran war photojournalist. In one…

Allan Nevins: (1959–71)—Nevins headed the nation’s Civil War Centennial Commission (1961–66) and helped to edit the commission’s 15-volume Impact Series. He joined Huntington Library in San Marino, California, as senior research associate, served for a term as a visiting professor at the University of Oxford (1964–65), and wrote the final volumes…

Karl Marx: Role in the First International of Karl Marx: …in a famous address entitled Civil War in France:

Jinshin-no-ran, in Japanese history, war of imperial succession that brought an emperor with a secure military base to the Japanese throne for the first time in history. The war strengthened the power of the imperial family at the expense of powerful associated clans, such as the Nakatomi and Soga.

American Civil War, four-year war (1861–65) between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The secession of the Southern states (in chronological order, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,

English Civil Wars, (1642–51), fighting that took place in the British Isles between supporters of the monarchy of Charles I (and his son and successor, Charles II) and opposing groups in each of Charles’s kingdoms, including Parliamentarians in England, Covenanters in Scotland, and Confederates in

Greek Civil War, (December 1944–January 1945 and 1946–49), two-stage conflict during which Greek communists unsuccessfully tried to gain control of Greece. The first stage of the civil war began only months before Nazi Germany’s occupation of Greece ended in October 1944. The German occupation had

ancient Egypt: Dynastic strife and decline (145–30 bce): …by cultivating influence with powerful Roman commanders and using their capacity to aggrandize Roman clients and allies. Julius Caesar pursued Pompey to Egypt in 48 bce. After learning of Pompey’s murder at the hands of Egyptian courtiers, Caesar stayed long enough to enjoy a sightseeing tour up the Nile in…

Spanish Civil War, (1936–39), military revolt against the Republican government of Spain, supported by conservative elements within the country. When an initial military coup failed to win control of the entire country, a bloody civil war ensued, fought with great ferocity on both sides. The

David McCullough: …Burns’s Brooklyn Bridge (1981) and The Civil War (1990), along with FDR (1994), The Statue of Liberty (1996), Napoleon (2000), and Abraham and Mary: A House Divided (2001). From 1991 to 1998 McCullough was president of the Society of American Historians. He was elected (1994) to the American Academy of…

Shelby Foote: …proved to be his masterwork, The Civil War: A Narrative (1958–74), which consists of three volumes—Fort Sumter to Perryville (1958), Fredericksburg to Meridian (1963), and Red River to Appomattox (1974). Considered a masterpiece by many critics, it was also criticized by academics for its lack of footnotes and other scholarly…

English literature: Other poetic styles: …was a verse history of The Civil Wars Between the Two Houses of Lancaster and York (1595–1609), and versified history is also strongly represented in Drayton’s Legends (1593–1607), Barons’ Wars (1596, 1603), and England’s Heroical Epistles (1597).

Ginés Pérez de Hita: …Guerras civiles de Granada (“The Civil Wars of Granada”). The book is considered the first Spanish historical novel and the last important collection of Moorish border ballads, the latter punctuating the book’s narrative.

Civil Works Administration (CWA), U.S. federal government program instituted during the Great Depression to employ as many needy Americans as possible for the winter of 1933–34. Although it lasted only about five months, the Civil Works Administration (CWA) provided jobs for more than four million

law of war: Civilians: According to customary international law, only members of the armed forces of a party to a conflict can take part in hostilities, and the law has always attempted to draw a clear distinction between the lawful combatant, who may be attacked, and the civilian,…

Civilista, member of a Peruvian political movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that opposed military control of the government. The party of the Civilistas, the Partido Civilista, was founded in 1871 by Manuel Pardo to oppose the corrupt military regime of President José Balta (served

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), one of U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s earliest New Deal programs, established to relieve unemployment during the Great Depression by providing national conservation work primarily for young unmarried men. Projects included planting trees, building flood

civil defense, in war or national defense, all nonmilitary actions taken to reduce loss of life and property resulting from enemy action. It includes defense against attack from conventional bombs or rockets, nuclear weapons, and chemical or biological agents. During World War II the threat of

citizen review, mechanism whereby alleged misconduct by local police forces may be independently investigated by representatives of the civilian population. Citizen review boards generally operate independently of the courts and other law-enforcement agencies. Among the first citizen review boards

Gaius Julius Civilis was a Batavi chieftain and a Roman army officer who led a rebellion on the Rhine frontier against Roman rule in ad 69–70. His story is known only from Tacitus’ vivid account. Civilis was suspected of disloyalty by Aulus Vitellius when the latter was acclaimed emperor in January

Kenneth Mackenzie Clark, Baron Clark: …wrote and narrated a series, Civilisation, for BBC television in 1969. This series, a sweeping panorama of European art from the Dark Ages to the 20th century, made Clark internationally known. While the series demonstrated Clark’s erudition, enthusiasm, and talent as a communicator, it was criticized by some art historians…

Cradles of Civilization: Cities emerged independently in these civilizations, beginning as small villages and growing into complex urban forms. This transformation took thousands of years, and key innovations—notably, the deliberate cultivation of crops and the use of a recordkeeping system—did not take place at the same time across these different places.

Fernand Braudel: 2–3, 1979; Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century). (The titles of the three individual volumes are Les Structures du quotidien: le possible et l’impossible [The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible], Les Jeux de l’échange [The Wheels of Commerce], and Le Temps du monde [The…

Civilista, member of a Peruvian political movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that opposed military control of the government. The party of the Civilistas, the Partido Civilista, was founded in 1871 by Manuel Pardo to oppose the corrupt military regime of President José Balta (served

black letter: The typeface became known as civilité because it was used to print a popular children’s book, La Civilité puerile (1536), which was written by the humanist scholar Desiderius Erasmus. The typeface was also used in a 16th-century Flemish handwriting book, Nouvel exemplaire pour apprendre à escrire (1565; “New Copy for…

Cradles of Civilization: Cities emerged independently in these civilizations, beginning as small villages and growing into complex urban forms. This transformation took thousands of years, and key innovations—notably, the deliberate cultivation of crops and the use of a recordkeeping system—did not take place at the same time across these different places.

Civilization, computer game series created in 1991 by Sid Meier and published by his U.S.-based MicroProse computer software company. Meier had experience creating flight simulator games prior to his work in the “God game” genre, where players have total control over multiple facets of the game.

Fernand Braudel: 2–3, 1979; Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century). (The titles of the three individual volumes are Les Structures du quotidien: le possible et l’impossible [The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible], Les Jeux de l’échange [The Wheels of Commerce], and Le Temps du monde [The…

Sigmund Freud: Religion, civilization, and discontents: …Unbehagen in der Kultur (1930; Civilization and Its Discontents), was devoted to what Rolland had dubbed the oceanic feeling. Freud described it as a sense of indissoluble oneness with the universe, which mystics in particular have celebrated as the fundamental religious experience. Its origin, Freud claimed, is nostalgia for the…

boarding school: Boarding schools as a method of assimilation: …of Native children in the Civilization Fund Act of 1819, missionaries seeking to convert Native Americans to Christianity began to create day schools. However, boarding schools provided greater control over Native children, and they became the government’s preferred strategy for assimilation. Hundreds of thousands of Native children attended these schools,…

Jacob Burckhardt: …of art and culture, whose Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860; The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1878, reprinted 1945) became a model for the treatment of cultural history in general.

Cradles of Civilization: …in a select number of places around the world, including the Fertile Crescent, certain river valleys in what is now China, the Indus River valley, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.

museum: History museums: The Museum of Civilizations from Europe and the Mediterranean (Mucem) absorbed some of the former museum’s collection and opened in Marseilles, France, in 2013. It endeavoured to offer a regional, as opposed to national, approach to cultural history. Outdoor museums preserving traditional architecture, sometimes in situ,…

Southern Africa: Urbanization and manufacturing: …to this that the “civilized labour” policy, which favoured employers using white labour, was devised in the 1920s. The policy probably was more effective in spurring capital-intensive manufacturing and the employment of poorly paid Afrikaner women than in eliminating white poverty: by 1930 one in five Afrikaners was classified…

Cradles of Civilization: Cities emerged independently in these civilizations, beginning as small villages and growing into complex urban forms. This transformation took thousands of years, and key innovations—notably, the deliberate cultivation of crops and the use of a recordkeeping system—did not take place at the same time across these different places.

Norbert Elias: …den Prozess der Zivilisation (1939; The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners).

George Saunders: …he wrote his first book, CivilWarLand in Bad Decline, a collection of dystopian stories that was published in 1996. More short-story collections followed: Pastoralia (2000), In Persuasion Nation (2006), and Tenth of December (2013). He also wrote the children’s book The Very Persistent Gappers of Frip, illustrated by Lane Smith,…

Civita Castellana, town, Lazio (Latium) region, central Italy. It lies along the Treia River, just southeast of the town of Viterbo. Civita Castellana stands on the site of the 9th-century-bc Falerii Veteres (“Old Falerii”), the capital of the Faliscans, a tribe belonging to the Etruscan

Civitanova Marche, town, Marche region, central Italy, east of Macerata city. The town lies on the Adriatic coast at the mouth of the Chienti River. It is divided into two centres: Portocivitanova, on the coast, and Civitanova Alta, on high ground 3 miles (5 km) inland. It is mainly a tourist

Audrey Flack: Sculptures: One of the best-known is Civitas, also called the Monumental Gateway to the city of Rock Hill, South Carolina (1990–91). It consists of four 20-foot- (6-metre-) high bronze figures on granite bases. Another Civitas sculpture (1990) is also installed at the Sagaponack Sculpture Field in New York. Her Recording Angel…

civitas, citizenship in ancient Rome. Roman citizenship was acquired by birth if both parents were Roman citizens (cives), although one of them, usually the mother, might be a peregrinus (“alien”) with connubium (the right to contract a Roman marriage). Otherwise, citizenship could be granted by

Bayeux, town, Calvados département, Normandy région, northwestern France. It lies on the Aure River, northwest of Caen. As Bajocasses, it was a capital of the Gauls, then, as Augustodurum and, later, Civitas Baiocassium, it was an important Roman city that became a bishopric in the 4th century.

Beauvais, town, capital of Oise département, Hauts-de-France région, northern France, at the juncture of the Thérain and Avelon rivers, north of Paris. Capital of the Bellovaci tribe, it was first called Caesaromagus, after its capture by Julius Caesar in 52 bce, and later Civitas de Bellovacis. In

Alessandria, city, Piedmont regione, northwestern Italy. The city lies at the confluence of the Bormida and Tanaro rivers, southeast of Turin (Torino). It was founded in 1168 by the towns of the Lombard League as an Alpine valley stronghold against the Holy Roman emperor Frederick I (Frederick

Périgueux, town, Dordogne département, Nouvelle-Aquitaine région, southwestern France. It lies on the right bank of the Isle River, east-northeast of Bordeaux and southwest of Paris. Originally settled by a Gaulish tribe, the Petrocorii, the town fell to the Romans, who called it Vesuna after a

Freiberg: …separate parts: the oldest, the Civitas Saxonum, a maze of alleys around the Nikolai (St. Nicholas) church; the Untermarkt (Lower Market), a merchant district with the modern cathedral at its centre; and the Oberstadt (Upper City), with the town hall and St. Peter’s Church as its notable landmarks. Medieval buildings…

Tours, city, capital of Indre-et-Loire département, Centre région, west-central France, on the Loire River. It is the chief tourist centre for the Loire valley and its historic châteaus. Early records show that the Turones, a pre-Roman Gallic people, settled on the right bank of the Loire River.

Worms, city, Rhineland-Palatinate Land (state), southwestern Germany. Worms is a port on the left (west) bank of the Rhine River, just northwest of Mannheim. Known originally as Celtic Borbetomagus, by the reign of Julius Caesar it was called Civitas Vangionum, the chief town of the Vangiones. In

France: Gaul under the high empire (c. 50 bce–c. 250 ce): Thus, these civitas-capitals, as scholars term them, were characterized by checkerboard street grids and imposing administrative and recreational buildings such as forums, baths, and amphitheatres. Although they display vernacular architectural traits, they essentially follow the best Mediterranean fashion. Most were unwalled—an indicator of the Pax Romana, a…

Humphrey De Hauteville: …important role in the decisive Battle of Civitate (1053), in which the Normans defeated a papal army; Pope Leo IX was taken prisoner, and on his release and return to Rome in 1054, Humphrey escorted him as far as Capua, north of Naples.

civitas, citizenship in ancient Rome. Roman citizenship was acquired by birth if both parents were Roman citizens (cives), although one of them, usually the mother, might be a peregrinus (“alien”) with connubium (the right to contract a Roman marriage). Otherwise, citizenship could be granted by

Civitavecchia, town and episcopal see, Lazio (Latium) regione, the principal port for Rome and central Italy and the main ferry link with the island of Sardinia. The port, situated on the Tyrrhenian Sea, was founded early in the 2nd century by the emperor Trajan on a stretch of coast known as

Internet: Foundation of the Internet: …joined by others, and the Commercial Internet Exchange (CIX) was formed to allow transit traffic between commercial networks that otherwise would not have been allowed on the NSFNET backbone. In 1995, after extensive review of the situation, NSF decided that support of the NSFNET infrastructure was no longer required, since…

Cixi was the consort of the Xianfeng emperor (reigned 1850–61), mother of the Tongzhi emperor (reigned 1861–75), adoptive mother of the Guangxu emperor (reigned 1875–1908), and a towering presence over the Chinese empire for almost half a century. By maintaining authority over the Manchu imperial

Hélène Cixous is a French feminist critic and theorist, novelist, and playwright. Cixous’s first language was German. She was reared in Algeria, which was then a French colony, a circumstance that, by her own account, gave her the undying desire to fight the violations of the human spirit wrought

Cizhou kiln, kiln known for stoneware produced in Handan (formerly Cizhou), Hebei province, in northern China, primarily during the Song (960–1279) dynasty. The kiln produced hard pillows, vases, bottles, and other vessels decorated with simple but marvelously assured brushwork in brown, black, or

Cizhou kiln, kiln known for stoneware produced in Handan (formerly Cizhou), Hebei province, in northern China, primarily during the Song (960–1279) dynasty. The kiln produced hard pillows, vases, bottles, and other vessels decorated with simple but marvelously assured brushwork in brown, black, or

Cizin, (Mayan: “Stinking One”), Mayan earthquake god and god of death, ruler of the subterranean land of the dead. He may possibly have been one aspect of a malevolent underworld deity who manifested himself under several names and guises (e.g., Ah Puch, Xibalba, and Yum Cimil). In pre-Conquest

Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), the judicial branch of the European Union (EU). Its basic mission is to ensure the observance and uniform application and interpretation of EU law within EU member states and institutions. Its headquarters are in Luxembourg. The CJEU originated in the

chlorine (Cl), chemical element, the second lightest member of the halogen elements, or Group 17 (Group VIIa) of the periodic table. Chlorine is a toxic, corrosive, greenish yellow gas that is irritating to the eyes and to the respiratory system. atomic number 17 atomic weight 35.446 to 35.457

Northern Ireland: Settlement patterns: …relics of tiny hamlets, or clachans, show that peasant crofts once were huddled together and worked by kinship groups in an open-field system. Between the end of the 18th and the middle of the 19th century, most of the land was enclosed and the scattered strips consolidated, partly as a…

Clackmannanshire, council area and historic county, east-central Scotland, bounded on the southwest by the River Forth. The River Devon, flowing east-west before turning to join the Forth, separates the carse (estuarine plain) from the moors of the Ochil Hills in the north. The present council area

Clackmannanshire, council area and historic county, east-central Scotland, bounded on the southwest by the River Forth. The River Devon, flowing east-west before turning to join the Forth, separates the carse (estuarine plain) from the moors of the Ochil Hills in the north. The present council area

Clactonian industry, early flake tool tradition of Europe. Rather primitive tools were made by striking flakes from a flint core in alternating directions; used cores were later used as choppers. Flakes were trimmed and used as scrapers or knives. A kind of concave scraper, perhaps used to smooth

Claddagh ring, in jewelry, a traditional Irish ring featuring a heart, a crown, and two hands symbolizing love, loyalty, and friendship, respectively. According to Irish custom, the ring’s positioning on the hand conveys the wearer’s marital status. It is also called the “friendship ring” or “hands

siding, material used to surface the exterior of a building to protect against exposure to the elements, prevent heat loss, and visually unify the facade. The word siding implies wood units, or products imitative of wood, used on houses. There are many different types of siding, including

industrial glass: Properties: …that second medium is the cladding, and light pulses are reflected within the core medium with very little distortion over great distances. The OWG can be single-mode (carrying essentially a single beam of light), in which case the core diameter is about 10 micrometres; or it can be multimode, in…

nuclear reactor: Core: …material is enclosed in a cladding—a substance that isolates the fuel from the coolant and minimizes the likelihood that radioactive fission products will be released. Cladding is often referred to as a reactor’s first fission product barrier, as it is the first barrier that fissile material contacts after nuclear fission.

chordate: Critical appraisal: …to a single lineage (clade) composed of the common ancestor and all of its descendants. A group that does not meet both of these requirements is called a grade and may be used as an informal group. Groups that do not contain the common ancestor, and therefore had two…

dinosaur: The first finds: …dinosaurs, albeit from fragmentary evidence: Cladeiodon, which was based on a single large tooth, and Cetiosaurus, which he named from an incomplete skeleton composed of very large bones. Having carefully studied most of these fossil specimens, Owen recognized that all of these bones represented a group of large reptiles that…

philosophy of biology: Taxonomy: Known as phylogenetic taxonomy, or cladism, this approach infers shared ancestry on the basis of uniquely shared historical (or derived) characteristics, called “synapomorphies.” Suppose, for example, that there is an original species marked by character A, and from this three species eventually evolve. The original species first…