Homelessness
Homelessness is “the state of having no home or permanent residence,” says Encyclopaedia Britannica, and “few social problems are as visible as the plight of homeless people.” From people with all their possessions in shopping carts on suburban roads and those occupying decaying buildings in rural areas to tent cities in major urban centers, homelessness in the United States is an issue few can ignore.[1]
The Problem, the Numbers
As the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) reported in 2024, “Homelessness among people in families with children, individuals, individuals with chronic patterns of homelessness, people staying in unsheltered locations, people staying in sheltered locations, and unaccompanied youth all reached the highest recorded numbers in 2024.” Veterans formed the only group to report continued declines in homelessness. [2]
In 2024, 771,480 people were homeless in the United States: 497,256 of them were sheltered, 274,224 unsheltered; this total was the highest amount since HUD began reporting on the unhoused population in 2007, increasing 18 percent compared to 2023 and 40 percent from its low point in 2016. This total, however, is only an estimate of how many people were homeless on a single night during the year; HUD conducts these snaptshot “Point-in-Time” (PIT) counts annually, typically in January, and they include the number of homeless in emergency shelters, transitional housing, and unsheltered locations. The count does not reflect how many people experienced homelessness throughout the year.[2]
Demographically, in 2024, 31.7 percent of the homeless were white, 30.6 percent were Hispanic, and 29.5 percent were Black, with other ethnic and racial groups making up the remainder. Most of the homeless were men (60 percent); women were more commonly homeless in rural areas than urban centers; and considering the Black population comprises only some 14 percent of the general U.S. population, it is clearly overrepresented when it comes to homelessness, which impacts the Black population in a disproportionate way. Individuals made up the majority of the homeless at 66.4 percent, while 33.6 percent were families living mostly in rural areas; the number of homeless families with children was a record high, and the number of unaccompanied youth who were homeless increased for a second straight year, a 10 percent increase over 2023. The state with the highest number of unhoused people was California, and the five cities with the largest homeless populations—New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Seattle, and Denver—accounted for more than one-third of all homeless people in the U.S. Overall, 54.2 percent of the country’s homeless were found in the country’s 50 largest cities, while 23.5 percent were in suburban areas, 16.4 percent in rural areas, with the remaining 5.9 percent in smaller cities. [2][37][38][39]
Two groups frequently referenced in debates about homelessness are the mentally ill and veterans. According to the National Library of Medicine (NLM) in 2021, some 76 percent of the homeless possessed a mental illness; the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2024 put the estimate at 67 percent—so, most likely, between two-thirds and three-fourths of the homeless suffer some sort of mental illness. Some 37 percent of them suffer from alcohol abuse, 22 percent from drug abuse, 12 percent from schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and 13 percent from major depression.[2][33][34]
Prior to the 1960s, the mentally ill were routinely institutionalized in state hospitals. However, deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill became common beginning in the 1960s. Inspired by several books, including Thomas Szasz’s The Myth of Mental Illness (1961), Erving Goffman’s Asylums (1961), and Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1962; Oscar-winning film, 1975), the feeling arose that the mentally ill did not need institutionalization but could live well on their own provided they were equipped with the right medication through community-based programs. As the National Alliance of Mental Illness reports, “with its negative depiction of mental-health facilities, many mental health professionals [cite One Flew Over the Cookoo’s Nest] as the most damaging piece of film ever created for the psychiatric community.”[35][36]
Tragically, many of these deinstitutionalized patients ended up homeless. As explained by psychiatrist E. Fuller Torrey, author of American Psychosis: How the Federal Government Destroyed the Mental Illness Treatment System (2013),
large numbers of the patients in those hospitals had no families to go to if they were released . . . had a brain impairment that precluded their understanding of their illness and need for medication, and . . . a small number of the patients had a history of dangerousness and required confinement and treatment.[35]
According to HUD in 2024, homelessness among veterans, amounting for just 5 percent of the homeless, continues to decline—the only category among the homeless to decline. This is the lowest percentage since data collection on veterans began in 2009. [2]
Globally, figures are difficult to calculate, but the World Economic Forum reported an estimated 150 million people were unhoused in 2021, up from 100 million reported by the last United Nations global survey in 2005. [3]
“Housing First” Policies
In the United States, the first major law to address homelessness was the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1987. The law, which has been reauthorized several times, provides basic services for the homeless, with an emphasis on emergency services. Since then, the federal government has focused on housing and preventing youth homelessness and operated under a “Housing First” policy― which prioritizes providing permanent shelter to the homeless without requiring ancillary conditions, such as mandatory sobriety, employment, or drug and mental health treatment―since 2013, when the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) adopted the policy. [1][4][5][6]
On July 24, 2025, the Trump Administration issued an executive order that shifted focus away from Housing First policies and toward ending “endemic vagrancy, disorderly behavior, sudden confrontations, and violent attacks” via enforcement of anti-vagrancy and public drug use laws. It also began “shifting homeless individuals into long-term institutional settings for humane treatment through the appropriate use of civil commitment.” While the federal government does not have the authority to enforce these policies at the state level, it has offered incentives to states that adopt or continue the suggested policies. [32]
Not only do state and local policies differ wildly, the National Alliance to End Homelessness, which promotes Housing First policies, notes that such programs vary in and of themselves. One model, permanent supportive housing (PSH), provides long-term rental assistance and is meant for those with “chronic illnesses, disabilities, mental health issues, or substance use disorders who have experienced long-term or repeated homelessness.” Rapid re-housing, on the other hand, provides short-term rental assistance. Housing First programs also offer optional support services. [4]
Other solutions to homelessness have been proposed, including the use of tiny houses and abandoned buildings for the homeless to criminalizing sleeping in public and requiring sobriety and employment before receiving shelter. On June 28, 2024, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in City of Grants Pass v. Johnson et al. that cities are allowed to ban people from sleeping and camping in public places, overturning dozens of laws and policies that disallowed the criminalization of homelessness. [1][4][5][6]
So, are homes the answer to homelessness? Are Housing First policies the best solution to this problem? Explore the debate below.
Pros and Cons at a Glance
| PROS | CONS |
|---|---|
| Pro 1: Housing First solves the immediate problem of not having a home. Read More. | Con 1: Housing First fails to address the root causes of homelessness. Read More. |
| Pro 2: Housing First is worth the cost and saves more taxpayer dollars than other so-called solutions. Read More. | Con 2: Housing First does not reduce homelessness and may increase unhoused populations. Read More. |
| Pro 3: Housing First reduces the additional consequences of homelessness including disease and crime. Read More. | Con 3: Housing First has failed―fueling, not alleviating, drug and mental health problems that spur homelessness. Read More. |
Pro Arguments
(Go to Con Arguments)Pro 1: Housing First solves the immediate problem of not having a home.
Housing First is based on the simple idea that solving a huge, immediate hurdle like housing will allow people the autonomy and opportunity to solve other problems in their lives.
“Housing First interventions focus on helping people achieve stability in housing first,” explains Sharon McDonald of the National Alliance to End Homelessness. “People with the foundation of a home are better positioned to take advantage of supportive services: they have the stability in which to engage in job search. They have the platform they need to provide care and continuity for their young children. They have the safety housing affords that allow those who want to address traumatic experiences with a skilled practitioner to do so at a pace that is unthreatening and makes sense to them. They have a safe place to store medication and address their health and mental health needs. The absence of housing help makes attaining personal goals that much harder to attain.”[7]
In fact, according to HUD, Housing First works especially well for “people with intersecting vulnerabilities, such as veterans and people with a history of substance abuse, mental illness challenges, domestic violence, and chronic medical conditions such as HIV/AIDS.” Requiring someone to seek help for multiple concerns in exchange for shelter can be overwhelming and set the person up for failure. [8]
As President Joe Biden said, ”When we provide access to housing to people experiencing homelessness, they are able to take steps to improve their health and well-being, further their education, seek steady employment, and bring greater stability to their lives and to the community that surrounds them.... By ensuring more Americans have safe, stable, and affordable homes, we can build a stronger foundation for our entire Nation.” [8]
Pro 2: Housing First is worth the cost and saves more taxpayer dollars than other so-called solutions.
A 2022 study found that Housing First policies cost an average of $16,479 per person per year in the United States. While that may seem expensive when calculated across the large homeless population, the average annual benefit per person was $18,247, meaning the benefits of Housing First policies outweigh the costs. [9]
According to a 2002 report, an average unhoused person with severe mental illness used about $40,449 annually in public services including hospitals and shelters in New York. However, when that same person is housed, costs are reduced by $16,282. [10]
In Maine, Housing First policies cut the average public cost of homelessness in half. When housed, the costs of police contact were cut by 66 percent as were ambulance transportation costs, emergency room and incarceration costs were cut by 62 percent, overall health care costs by 59 percent, mental health care costs by 41 percent. [11]
A study of 51 unhoused senior citizens who were housed in a San Francisco skilled nursing facility reported a $1.46 million reduction in hospital costs over seven years, about $4,482 per person per year. [12]
The Urban Institute found that “scaling up the [Housing First] program to end chronic homelessness in Denver County [Colorado] would cost between $14.6 and $18.7 million annually, but $8.3 million of that total cost would be offset by savings in other services….In addition to providing better outcomes for people, the [program] proved to be a better use of taxpayer dollars than the current status quo of the homelessness-jail cycle.” [13]
Not only do unhoused people benefit from Housing First policies, so do taxpayers.
Pro 3: Housing First reduces the additional consequences of homelessness including disease and crime.
“Homeless Camps are Infectious Disease Time Bombs” asserts the title of a 2015 report from the coroner of New Orleans. Getting the homeless off the streets can help remedy this situation. [14]
Unhoused people are at a greater risk for acquiring and spreading communicable diseases, including HIV, hepatitis A, hepatitis C, invasive group A streptococcal infection, Shigella infection, syphilis, and tuberculosis (TB), due to a lack of sanitation, laundry facilities, vaccinations, and health care, among other reasons. [15][16][17]
Providing housing removes the risk factors and either prevents infection or allows for treatment if the person has already contracted a communicable disease. Housing also immediately limits the number of people to whom the disease can spread. [15][16][17]
Homelessness is also associated with higher rates of noncommunicable diseases including anemia, drug and alcohol addiction, respiratory and cardiac illnesses, diabetes, skin issues, dental problems, and major mental illnesses like schizophrenia. Again, immediate housing removes the cause of quite a few of these health concerns, be it exposure to the elements, a lack of nutritional food, or the stress of not having a house. [18]
Furthermore, Housing First policies were associated with “higher rates of compliance with antipsychotic medication and methadone maintenance therapy. Patients in all Housing First programs had reduced average alcohol consumption.” Providing a home provides the ability to focus on wellness rather than survival, which can lead to medication and other health care compliance. [19]
While associating increasing crime rates with homelessness is tenuous, the unhoused population does commit a number of petty crimes such as sleeping in public, low-level theft, and panhandling. If drugs are involved, the crimes may increase in severity. And, unhouse people are disproportionately involved in the criminal justice system with many spending a night in jail for various infractions. [20][21][22]
But crimes against the homeless are also a problem. According to the National Coalition for the Homeless, almost 2,000 violent acts have been committed against unhoused people including sexual assault, being set on fire, and at least 588 murders. However, the Bureau of Justice estimates fewer than 44 percent of violent crimes against the homeless are reported, meaning the number of crimes against the homeless is likely much greater. [21][22]
Con Arguments
(Go to Pro Arguments)Con 1: Housing First fails to address the root causes of homelessness.
Housing First is based on the simple idea that giving unhoused people a home solves the problem of homelessness.
However, Housing First “ignores that the major problems for the chronically homeless aren’t just lack of a home. A recent UCLA study found that more than 75 percent of this population have a serious mental illness, and 75 percent have a substance abuse problem, and the majority have both,” says Judge Glock of the Cicero Institute. [23]
He points to several studies that show permanent supportive housing (PSH) can actually encourage drug use because the now-housed addicts have more money and time available for drugs, which in turn leads to higher rates of crime and death. Other investigations have shown an increase in mental illness symptoms because PSH increased social isolation and did not require healthcare. [23]
In other words, people are homeless for reasons other than simply not having a permanent residence. Poverty, unaffordable housing, changing economic trends, drug abuse, mental illness, racial disparities, domestic violence and other familial disputes, prison release, and natural disasters can all cause homelessness. Housing alone will not solve any combination of those factors, or force the homeless to deal with these factors, that have led to an individual’s homelessness. [18][19][20]
“The Housing First philosophy effectively assumes that homeless individuals must remain wards of the state. The bulk of Housing First grants, therefore, are allocated to permanent-supportive housing for people who need support permanently, virtually disregarding the fact that 47 percent of homeless individuals were able to become self-sufficient under prior programs,” which makes the case for mental health, substance abuse, and other aid programs, explains Christopher Calton of the Independent Institute. [26]
Con 2: Housing First does not reduce homelessness and may increase unhoused populations.
Nationally, permanent supportive housing (PSH) units increased by 31 percent between 2018 and 2023. If such Housing First policies worked, the unhoused population would have decreased by at least the same amount. However, the chronically unsheltered homeless population grew by 60 percent. [25]
Arizona had a homeless population of 9,435 people in January 2024, despite having 9,797 PSH units in December 2023. As Judge Glock notes, “The state of Arizona has built over 7,000 permanent homes for the homeless since 2010, enough to house every unsheltered person when they began, but the number of Arizonians living on the streets has increased by 50 percent in recent years.” [23][27][28]
Cities with Housing First policies in California increased PSH units by 25,000 between 2010 and 2019, during which time the unsheltered homeless population grew by 50 percent. California adopted a statewide Housing First policy in 2016 when the homeless population was 31,548. By 2022, that population had grown to 60,905. [29][30]
Utah first implemented a Housing First policy in 2005. By 2010, the state counted 406 “chronically homeless” people. In 2022, that number had almost doubled to 792.[30]
Rachel Sheffield of the Heritage Foundation speculates that “some people may stay in permanent supportive housing longer than they would have remained homeless, occupying units that would otherwise be available for others. Others may migrate to an area that offers permanent supportive housing. Housing First may also incentivize people to remain homeless longer in order to receive free housing.”[29]
Regardless of the reason, the fact remains that the homeless population has grown under Housing First policies.
Con 3: Housing First has failed―fueling, not alleviating, drug and mental health problems that spur homelessness.
The homeless need help, but so do our cities, and to maintain order in our cities, we must hold all citizens, including the homeless, accountable to the rule of law. Simply giving them free housing is not the answer.
“There was once some hope that housing alone could help reduce drug use and mental health problems. Yet studies have now shown that simply providing people subsidized housing does not reduce drug use, and often encourages it, which makes sense because there is no mandated treatment . . . and the free unit provides people with more money to pursue their habits,” reports Judge Glock. [23]
“Despite some early hopes, the results are in, and we now know that Housing First has failed,” Glock writes. “It is expensive, ineffective, and, often, counterproductive. While some individuals may benefit from [such Housing First policies], as a sole strategy for ‘ending homelessness,’ it has and will continue to frustrate the cities that pursue it.” [23]
Moreover, states need to first count and evaluate their unhoused populations and continue to do so. Counting any population on one day in January is inaccurate at best and negligent at worst. Then policies can be considered and enacted to best help each homeless population, including but not limited to those living in cars, on the street, and in shelters. [25]
For example, one solution called Built for Zero uses a “comprehensive accounting of every person experiencing homelessness locally, regardless of sheltered or unsheltered status, updated at least monthly” and then “leverage this data to track population-level changes, like inflow and outflow, which are critical to making targeted investments and changes to the system. And this rapid feedback loop tells them if they are driving reliable reductions in homelessness, and informs quicker, more adaptive decision-making. This includes how to use vital resources, such as funding, housing stock, and other community services.” [31]
These solutions could include directing mental health and addiction funding toward homeless populations, setting up designated locations for tents or banning tent cities altogether, an expansion of shelters, allowing involuntary commitment to mental health institutions, and creating accountability for all programs helping unhoused populations. [25]
Regardless of the policies implemented, specifically targeting them toward individuals or defined homeless populations will result in better results than bandaid reactions like Housing First policies.
Assessment Quiz
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Discussion Questions
- Is homelessness a problem to be solved by the government (local, state, or federal), a social problem to be solved by non-government organizations (NGOs), or is it a personal problem to be solved by individuals? Explain your answer.
- Are Housing First policies the best way to deal with homelessness? Why or why not?
- What other policies would you consider for solving homelessness? Explain your answer.
Take Action
- Analyze the Housing First fact sheet from The National Alliance to End Homelessness.
- Consider data on homelessness from the U.S. Government Accountability Office.
- Explore Dean Kurtz’s explanation of “Why America’s Homelessness Strategy Failed and How to Fix It.”
- Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? If so, how? List two to three ways. If your thoughts have not changed, list two to three ways your better understanding of the “other side of the issue” now helps you better argue your position.
- Push for the position and policies you support by writing U.S. senators and representatives.
Sources
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Homelessness” (October 31, 2024), britannica.com
- U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “The 2024 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress” (December 2024), huduser.gov
- Homeless World Cup, “Global Homelessness Statistics” (accessed November 6, 2024), homelessworldcup.org
- National Alliance to End Homelessness, “Housing First” (August 2022), endhomelessness.org
- Jennider Ludden, “The Supreme Court Says Cities Can Punish People for Sleeping in Public Places” (June 28, 2024), npr.org
- U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “Housing First Works” (Spring/Summer 2023), huduser.gov
- Sharon McDonald, “Why Housing First? Why Not Housing Second? Or Third?” (June 21, 2019), endhomelessness.org
- HUD Office of Policy Development and Research, “Housing First: A Review of the Evidence” (Spring/Summer 2023), huduser.gov
- Verughese Jacob, et al, “Permanent Supportive Housing with Housing First: Findings from a Community Guide Systematic Economic Review” (March 2022 ), American Journal of Preventive Medicine, sciencedirect.com
- Dennis P. Culhane, Stephen Metraux, and Trevor Hadley, “Public Service Reductions Associated with Placement of Homeless Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Supportive Housing” (2002), Housing Policy Debate, shnny.org
- Melany Mondello, et al, “Cost of Homelessness: Cost Analysis of Permanent Supportive Housing” (September 2007), shnny.org
- Joshua D. Bamberger and Sarah K. Dobbins, “A Research Note: Long-Term Cost Effectiveness of Placing Homeless Seniors in Permanent Supportive Housing” (huduser.gov, 2025), Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research
- Sarah Gillespie, et al, “Costs and Offsets of Providing Supportive Housing to Break the Homelessness-Jail Cycle” (July 2021), urban.org
- Dwight L. McKenna, “Homeless Camps are Infectious Disease Time Bombs” (2015), neworleanscoroner.com
- C.Y. Liu, S.J. Chai, and J.P. Watt, “Communicable Disease among People Experiencing Homelessness in California” (March 30, 2020), Epidemiology and Infection, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Julie L Self, et al, “Estimating and Evaluating Tuberculosis Incidence Rates among People Experiencing Homelessness, United States, 2007–2016” (April 1, 2022), Medical Care, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Centers for Disease Control, “Public Health Considerations for Shigellosis Among People Experiencing Homelessness” (March 26, 2024), cdc.gov
- Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, Homelessness, Health, and Human Needs (1988)
- Gabriel Mondry, “Housing First Promotes Mental Health Recovery in Specific Subsets of Homeless Individuals” (June 27, 2023), Journal of Mental Health and Psychiatric Disorders, jscholaronline.org
- Lisel Petis, “The Crime and Safety Blindspot: Do Homeless Populations Pose an Increased Risk to Public Safety?” (July 9, 2024), rstreet.org
- Meg Anderson, “Politicians Often Link Crime and Homelessness. The Reality Is More Complex” (September, 26, 2024), npr.org
- National Coalition for the Homeless, “2024 Hate Crimes Report” (May 2024), nationalhomeless.org
- Judge Glock, “Housing First is a Failure” (January 13, 2022), ciceroinstitute.org
- National Alliance to End Homelessness, “What Causes Homelessness?” (accessed November 6, 2024), endhomelessness.org
- Devon Kurtz, “Why America’s Homelessness Strategy Failed and How to Fix It” (October 19, 2024), ciceroinstitute.org
- Christopher Calton, “Homelessness Isn’t Helplessness, but Housing First Assumes It Is” (June 11, 2024), thehill.com
- Maricopa Association of Governments, “Point-In-Time Homelessness Count” (January 2024), azmag.gov
- U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “HUD 2023 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs Housing Inventory Count Report” (December 6, 2023), files.hudexchange.info
- Rachel Sheffield, “A Failed Solution for Our Soaring Homelessness Problem” (February 12, 2024), governing.com
- Vanessa Brown Calder and Jordan Gygi, “Housing Markets First: Housing Supply and Affordability Are Key to Reducing Homelessness” (May 8, 2023), cato.org
- Bethany Snyder, “Yes, There’s a Better Way to Measure Homelessness than the Annual Point-in-Time Count” (January 22, 2021), community.solutions
- White House, “Ending Crime and Disorder on America’s Streets” (July 24, 2025), whitehouse.gov
- Emily Harris, “Two-Thirds of Unhoused People Have Mental Health Disorders” (May 10, 2024), jamanetwork.com
- Stefan Gutwinski ,Stefanie Schreiter ,Karl Deutscher, Seena Fazel, “The prevalence of mental disorders among homeless people in high-income countries: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis” (August 23, 2021), journals.plos.org
- Marvin Olasky, “How Politicians Strafed the Cuckoo’s Nest” (September 27, 2024), fixhomelessness.org
- National Alliance of Mental Illness, “How One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest Hurt Mental Health” (accessed September 14, 2025), namiiowa.org
- Steven Ross Johnson, Julia Haines and Jaclyn Jeffrey-Wilensky, “The 25 Major U.S. Cities With the Largest Homeless Populations” (January 8, 2025), usnews.com
- Congressional Research Service, “In Focus: Homelessness” (May 5, 2025), congress.gov
- Ravan Hawrami, Noah Hendelman, Alanna Williams, “Male homelessness in the United States” (February 27, 2025), aibm.org