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computer: References & Edit History
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Assorted References
- development of functionalism
applications
arts
behavioral sciences
- concept formation
- intelligence studies
defense
- inertial guidance systems
- intelligence
- logistic administration
- military communications
- missiles
education
- encyclopaedias
electronics and engineering
- building design
- chemical engineering
- drafting
industry
- aerospace
- automobile
- cash registers
- commercial fishing
- computer process control
- fashion
- machine tools
- mass production
- operations research simulations
- publishing
- ship design
- Silicon Valley
- systems engineering
- technology
- telemetric data processing
- typesetting
- word processing
- work organization
mathematics, analysis, and measurement
- advancement and capabilities of instrumentation
- chemical analysis
- cybernetics
- In cybernetics
- formal logic in communications
- mass spectrometry
- mathematical theorems
- number theory
- numerical analysis
- optimization theory
- In optimization
meteorology and Earth studies
- geographic analysis
- weather forecasting
physical sciences
- botanical research
- physiology
- tomography
- In tomography
- zoological research
simulation
- In simulation
- flight simulator
social sciences
- analysis of speech
- comparison to thought processes
- international relations research
- lexicography
- textual criticism
transportation
- aerial navigation
- air−traffic control
- navigation
- railroad operations
- traffic control
- astronomy
- automation
- brain-computer interface
- business logistics
- criminal investigation
- database manipulation
- In database
- information science
- information systems
- museum documentation systems
- solar tracker installations
- teaching
design and operation
use of
work of
- Aiken
- In Howard Aiken
- Babbage
- Eckert
- Gates
- In Bill Gates
- Hollerith
- Hopper
- In Grace Hopper
- Leibniz
- Lovelace
- In Ada Lovelace
- Turing
- von Neumann
- backup power source
- computer science
- relation to logic
development by
- Hewlett-Packard Company
- Hitachi
- IBM
- In IBM
- NEC Corp.
Additional Reading
Computer design and technology
W. Daniel Hillis, The Pattern on the Stone: The Simple Ideas That Make Computers Work (1998), provides lucid informal explanations of the principles of computer hardware and software. Gerrit A. Blaauw and Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution (1997), combines a discussion of the principles of computer design with a survey of historically important computer systems. David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface, 2nd ed. (1998), is an introductory textbook with detailed descriptions of CPU and computer system design. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems, 2nd ed. (2001), is a well-written introductory survey of this topic. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 3rd ed. (1996), is a standard textbook.
David HemmendingerComputer history
Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (1996), is a comprehensive history that begins with early computational devices and proceeds through the creation of the first computers. Charles Eames and Ray Eames, A Computer Perspective, ed. by Glen Fleck (1973, reprinted 1990), is a pictorial record of the authors’ creation of a computer exhibition for IBM that covered developments from the 1890 U.S. Census up to the stored-program computer, 1890–1950. N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota (eds.), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (1980), collects essays by participants in the events described, with hard-to-find details on wartime computer work in England, early computer development in Europe and Japan, and ENIAC. Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: The Evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, updated ed. (1996), is a readable overview of the history of computers with anecdotes and personalities. Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.), History of Programming Languages (1981), presents an academic and anecdotal history of 10 significant early programming languages, including FORTRAN, COBOL, and BASIC. Thomas J. Bergin, Jr., and Richard G. Gibson, Jr. (eds.), History of Programming Languages II (1996), gives a mixture of academic research and anecdotal accounts from participants, covering the history of ALGOL, Pascal, and more modern languages through C and Smalltalk. Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer (1984), describes the nascent years of the personal computer industry and the growth that took place in Silicon Valley. Peter J. Denning and Robert M. Metcalfe, Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing (1997), contains essays by experts on the social, scientific, and economic impact of computers during the coming decades.
Paul A. Freiberger Michael R. SwaineBy The Way
Article Contributors
Primary Contributors
- Paul A. Freiberger
- David Hemmendinger
-
William Morton Pottenger
Research scientist at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, University of Illinois.
- Michael R. Swaine
-
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors
- Adam Augustyn
- Encyclopaedia Britannica
- Yamini Chauhan
- Aakanksha Gaur
- Erik Gregersen
- Parul Jain
- Thinley Kalsang Bhutia
- William L. Hosch
- Robert Lewis
- Gita Liesangthem
- Gloria Lotha
- J.E. Luebering
- Deepti Mahajan
- Richard Pallardy
- Tara Ramanathan
- Emily Rodriguez
- Robert S. Davis
- Gaurav Shukla
- Shiveta Singh
- Amy Tikkanen
- Grace Young
Article History
| Type | Description | Contributor | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Added Top Questions to the “History of computing” section. | Dec 22, 2025 | ||
| Add new Web site: ABC listen - Big Ideas - History of the computer. | Dec 10, 2025 | ||
| Added cross-references. | Oct 17, 2025 | ||
| Updated information about e-commerce and social media. | Sep 24, 2025 | ||
| Article assemblies revised. | Aug 25, 2025 | ||
| Add new Web site: IEEE Xplore - What Is a Computer? An Answer from the Past. | Jul 31, 2025 | ||
| Add new Web site: Academia - Definition -What does Computer mean (PDF). | Jun 16, 2025 | ||
| Questions and answers added. | Mar 17, 2025 | ||
| Link added. | Mar 14, 2025 | ||
| Link added. | Mar 13, 2025 | ||
| Add new Web site: University of Babylon - What is Computer? (PDF). | Dec 20, 2024 | ||
| Added 21st-Century Technology Timeline banner. | Aug 27, 2024 | ||
| Add new Web site: University of Rhode Island - College of Arts and Sciences - Department of Computer Science and Statistics - History of Computers. | May 28, 2024 | ||
| Added information about laptop computers and modernized sections. | Mar 27, 2024 | ||
| Cross-reference added. | Jan 18, 2023 | ||
| Add new Web site: Engineering LibreTexts - What is a computer? | Dec 04, 2022 | ||
| Add new Web site: Computer History Museum - Timeline of Computer history. | Aug 22, 2022 | ||
| Add new Web site: Inventors and Inventions - The Computer. | Apr 01, 2022 | ||
| Corrected display issue. | May 06, 2021 | ||
| Corrected display issue. | Sep 22, 2020 | ||
| Add new Web site: Cool Kid Facts - Computer Facts. | Jan 30, 2019 | ||
| Add new Web site: IDAHO Public Television - Science Trek - Computer. | Jan 30, 2019 | ||
| Add new Web site: ThoughtCo. - The History of Computers. | May 03, 2018 | ||
| In the History of computing section, updated the list of popular social-networking sites. | May 03, 2018 | ||
| Added cross-references. | Mar 27, 2018 | ||
| Corrected display issue. | Feb 23, 2018 | ||
| Add new Web site: Computer Hope - What is a Computer? | Oct 05, 2017 | ||
| Media added. | Mar 27, 2017 | ||
| Add new Web site: Easy Science for Kids - Computers: History, Components and Future. | Dec 19, 2016 | ||
| Add new Web site: LiveScience - History of Computers: A Brief Timeline. | Nov 28, 2016 | ||
| Media added. | Oct 19, 2016 | ||
| Add new Web site: Computer History Museum - Timeline of Computer History. | Aug 01, 2016 | ||
| Add new Web site: Livescience - History of Computers: A Brief Timeline. | Aug 01, 2016 | ||
| Media added. | May 12, 2016 | ||
| Media added. | May 12, 2016 | ||
| Added video. | May 12, 2015 | ||
| The word "bit-map" changed to "bitmap." | Aug 01, 2014 | ||
| Add new Web site: Buzzle.com - Computer. | Jan 29, 2013 | ||
| Add new Web site: British Broadcasting Corporation - Computer Basics. | Jan 29, 2013 | ||
| In the section Local area networks, "WiFi" changed to "Wi-Fi." Speed of Wi-Fi updated from "from 11 to 54" to "up to 600" megabits per second. Speed of later version of HomePlug added. | Jul 05, 2012 | ||
| Add new Web site: How Stuff Works - Computer - 10 Types of Computers. | May 06, 2012 | ||
| Add new Web site: Science Kids - Fun Science and Technology for Kids! - Computer Facts. | Mar 16, 2012 | ||
| Add new Web site: Buzzle.com - Different Types of Computers. | Dec 08, 2011 | ||
| Add new Web site: Fact Monster - Science - Computers and Technology. | Aug 18, 2011 | ||
| Add new Web site: How Stuff Works - How Personal Computer Work. | Aug 18, 2011 | ||
| Add new Web site: ThinkQuest - Computer. | Aug 18, 2011 | ||
| Add new Web site: Buzzle.com - Evolution Of Computers. | Sep 06, 2010 | ||
| Images of Arithmometer added. | Apr 13, 2010 | ||
| Changed Thomas Watson to Thomas J. Watson, Sr., in order to avoid confusion with Thomas Augustus Watson. | Aug 03, 2009 | ||
| Added image of LG enV2 telephone. | Jul 22, 2009 | ||
| Added new Web site: Public Broadcasting Service - A History of the Computer. | Apr 20, 2009 | ||
| Added new Web site: How Stuff Works - Electronics - How To Build A Computer. | Mar 18, 2009 | ||
| Article thoroughly revised and updated. | Dec 29, 2008 | ||
| Article thoroughly revised. | Dec 29, 2008 | ||
| Media added. | Jul 22, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: How Stuff Works - Computer - What are the Different Types of Computers? | Jun 06, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: How Stuff Works - Computer - How to Build a Computer. | Jun 06, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: IEEE Virtual Museum - Computers. | May 09, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: IEEE Virtual Museum - Transistors Launch the Computer Revolution. | May 09, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: IEEE Virtual Museum - Women and Computers. | May 09, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: History.com - Computer. | Oct 08, 2007 | ||
| Media added. | Jul 13, 2007 | ||
| Article revised and updated. | Feb 02, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: Information Ethics - On the Philosophical Foundation of Computer Ethics. |
|
Nov 20, 2006 | |
| Added new Web site: U.S. Department of Education - Parents Guide to the Internet. |
|
Nov 03, 2006 | |
| Added new Web site: PBS Online - A History of the Computer. | Sep 22, 2006 | ||
| Added new Web site: Computer History Museum. | May 10, 2006 | ||
| Article revised. | Mar 17, 2005 | ||
| Article revised. | Nov 21, 2001 | ||
| Article revised. | May 25, 2001 | ||
| New article added. | May 11, 2001 |
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Article History
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