the Kinks: …approach with the remarkable “See My Friends” (1965), an ambiguous story of male bonding, which represents the first satisfying fusion of Western pop with Indian musical forms. As their impact on the American market lessened after a disastrous tour in 1965, the Kinks became more idiosyncratically English, with social…

Richard Fleischer: Later work: …1971 Fleischer directed the thriller See No Evil, with Mia Farrow as a blind woman who returns home to find that her family has been killed, and The Last Run, an offbeat gangster yarn starring George C. Scott. Scott returned for The New Centurions (1972), an adaptation of former cop…

Arthur Hiller: Later films: …Shelley Long as rivals, but See No Evil, Hear No Evil (1989) was disappointing, despite the presence of Wilder and Pryor. Hiller took a break from comedies to direct The Babe (1992), a biopic starring John Goodman as the legendary baseball player; it received mixed reviews, largely because of blatant…

Jamaica Kincaid: Literary works: The novel See Now Then (2013) chronicles the late-life dissolution of a marriage by way of the jilted wife’s acerbic ruminations. It won a 2014 American Book Award.

Eastern Orthodoxy: The Eastern Orthodox Church in the Middle East: …the ancient sees of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem are remnants of the Byzantine imperial past, but under the present conditions they still possess many opportunities of development: Alexandria as the centre of emerging African communities (see below The Orthodox diaspora and missions); Antioch as the largest Arab Christian group, with…

Blind Lemon Jefferson: …Blues,” “Mosquito Blues,” and “See That My Grave Is Kept Clean.”

Russia is the world’s largest country by area, with great variety in its land and people. Its architectural heritage is equally varied, as these 18 buildings demonstrate. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by

Alan J. Pakula: Films of the 1980s: In the less-than-well-received See You in the Morning (1989), Jeff Bridges and Alice Krige played a recently married couple whose ex-spouses (Farrah Fawcett and David Dukes) and children (Macaulay Culkin, Drew Barrymore, and Lukas Haas) conspire to make their transition a bumpy one.

Wong Kar-Wai: …and produced the romantic comedy Bai du ren (2016; “See You Tomorrow”). It was directed by Zhang Jiajia, who wrote the story on which it was based. Though it starred Leung and had many of the hallmarks of Wong’s movies, it was undermined by an unevenness of tone.

thermoelectric power generator: Seebeck effect: …proportionality factor (α) called the Seebeck coefficient, or V = αΔT. The value for α is dependent on the types of material at the junction.

Seebeck effect, production of an electromotive force (emf) and consequently an electric current in a loop of material consisting of at least two dissimilar conductors when two junctions are maintained at different temperatures. The conductors are commonly metals, though they need not even be

thermoelectric power generator: Seebeck effect: …generated voltage (V) is the Seebeck voltage and is related to the difference in temperature (ΔT) between the heated junction and the open junction by a proportionality factor (α) called the Seebeck coefficient, or V = αΔT. The value for α is dependent on the types of material at the…

Thomas Johann Seebeck was a German physicist who discovered (1821) that an electric current flows between different conductive materials that are kept at different temperatures, known as the Seebeck effect. Seebeck studied medicine at Berlin and at the University of Gottingen, where he acquired an

Peter Seeberg was a Danish novelist influenced by French existentialism. Seeberg’s first book appeared in 1956, Bipersonerne (“Secondary Characters”), a novel about a collective of foreign workers in Berlin toward the end of World War II. These workers inhabit an unreal world, a film studio, at an

Hans von Seeckt was a German general and head of the Reichswehr (army) from 1920 to 1926, who was responsible for successfully remodelling the army under the Weimar Republic. Seeckt entered the German Army in 1885. By 1889 he was a member of the general staff, where he remained for the next two

seed, the characteristic reproductive body of both angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (e.g., conifers, cycads, and ginkgos). Essentially, a seed consists of a miniature undeveloped plant (the embryo), which, alone or in the company of stored food for its early development after

materials science: Optical switching: …the quantum-well self-electro-optic-effect device, or SEED. The key concept for this device is the use of quantum wells. These structures consist of many thin layers of two different semiconductor materials. Individual layers are typically 10 nanometres (about 40 atoms) thick, and 100 layers are used in a device about 1…

crystal: Vapour growth: …growth of a crystal is seeding, in which a small piece of crystal of the proper structure and orientation, called a seed, is introduced into the container. The gas molecules find the seed a more favourable surface than the walls and preferentially deposit there. Once the molecule is on the…

angiosperm: Significance to humans: …for the nuts and hard seeds they produce are almonds (Prunus dulcis; Rosaceae), walnuts (Juglans; Juglandaceae), pecans (Carya illinoinensis; Juglandaceae), macadamias (Macadamia; Proteaceae), and hazelnuts (Corylus; Betulaceae).

John M. Stahl: Seed (1931) was a soap opera set in the world of publishing, with John Boles as a clerk who leaves his wife and children for an editor he hopes might publish his writings; Bette Davis appeared as one of the daughters. Next was Strictly Dishonorable…

Kew Gardens: In 1996 the seed bank endeavor grew to become the Millennium Seed Bank Project (later the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership) to mitigate the extinction of at-risk and useful plants through seed preservation. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank is the largest wild plant seed bank in the world. By 2024…

seed beetle, (subfamily Bruchinae), any of some 1,350 species of beetles (insect order Coleoptera) whose larvae live in and feed on dried seeds. Seed beetles are oval or egg shaped, 1 to 10 mm (up to 25 inch) in length, and black or brown in colour. In adults the abdomen extends beyond the short

Ignazio Silone: …seme sotto la neve (1940; The Seed Beneath the Snow, 1942), portray socialist heroes who try to help the peasants by sharing their sufferings in a Christian spirit. Pane e vino was dramatized in 1944 as Ed egli si nascose (London, And He Did Hide Himself, New York, And He…

lygaeid bug, (family Lygaeidae), any of a group of insects in the true bug order, Heteroptera, that includes many important crop pests. There are between 3,000 and 5,000 species of lygaeid bugs, which vary from brown to brightly patterned with red, white, or black spots and bands. The large

Expo Shanghai 2010: The pavilions: …which was called the “Seed Cathedral.” The creation of British designer Thomas Heatherwick, the 66-foot (20-meter) cubelike structure resembled a dandelion head and was composed of tens of thousands of long thin acrylic rods with plant seeds embedded into the end of each rod. Other notable pavilions included that…

angiosperm: Seeds: …integuments, which develop into a seed coat that is usually hard. They are enclosed in the ovary of a carpel and thus are protected from the elements and predators.

crystal: Vapour growth: …growth of a crystal is seeding, in which a small piece of crystal of the proper structure and orientation, called a seed, is introduced into the container. The gas molecules find the seed a more favourable surface than the walls and preferentially deposit there. Once the molecule is on the…

seed dispersal, in botany, the movement or spread of seeds away from the parent plant. Given that seeds are essentially plant embryos and thus hold the genetic material of the next generation, the successful establishment of a plant’s progeny is important to the overall survival of the species.

soil seed bank: The role of seed dormancy: Seed dormancy and environmental constraints on germination influence various characteristics of soil seed banks. For example, seed dormancy determines how long a seed can remain viable in the soil. Factors such as embryo immaturity, chemical inhibitors, and physical constraints influence seed dormancy. Light…

grain drill, machine for planting seed at a controlled depth and in specified amounts. The earliest known version, invented in Mesopotamia by 2000 bc, consisted of a wooden plow equipped with a seed hopper and a tube that conveyed the seed to the furrow. By the 17th century, metering systems were

seed fern, loose confederation of seed plants from the Carboniferous and Permian periods (about 360 to 250 million years ago). Some, such as Medullosa, grew as upright, unbranched woody trunks topped with a crown of large fernlike fronds; others, such as Callistophyton, were woody vines. All had

fungicide: Seed fungicides are applied as a protective covering before germination. Systemic fungicides, or chemotherapeutants, are applied to plants, where they become distributed throughout the tissue and act to eradicate existing disease or to protect against possible disease. In human and veterinary medicine, pharmaceutical fungicides are…

cotyledon, seed leaf within the embryo of a seed. Cotyledons help supply the nutrition a plant embryo needs to germinate and become established as a photosynthetic organism and may themselves be a source of nutritional reserves or may aid the embryo in metabolizing nutrition stored elsewhere in the

pearl: … 1 4 carat) are called seed pearls. The largest naturally occurring pearls are the baroque pearls; one such pearl is known to have weighed 1,860 grains (121 grams [about 4.3 ounces]).

seed plant, any of the more than 300,000 species of seed-bearing vascular plants. Although the taxonomic division Spermatophyta is no longer accepted, the term spermatophyte is used to refer collectively to the angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (conifers, cycads, and allies). See also

propagation: Sexual propagation.: With crops that produce seed freely and come true closely enough for the purposes in view, growing from seed usually is the cheapest and most satisfactory method of plant propagation. Many types of seeds may be sown in open ground and, barring extreme…

rot: Types of rot: Seed rot results in row skips and a poor, irregular stand; it is especially troublesome in cold, wet, heavy soils.

mussel shrimp, any of a widely distributed group of crustaceans belonging to the subclass Ostracoda (class Crustacea) that resemble mussels in that the body is enclosed within a bivalved (two-valved) shell. Mussel shrimp differ from most other crustaceans in having a very short trunk that has lost

Tarjei Vesaas: …awareness mark his Kimen (1940; The Seed), which shows how hatred is stirred up by mass psychology, and Huset i mørkret (1945; “House in Darkness”), a symbolic vision of the Nazi occupation of Norway. Fuglane (1957; The Birds), considered his greatest work (and later filmed), pleads for tolerance toward the…

forestry: Artificial regeneration: Seedlings grown in raised seedbeds are removed from the nursery soil when large enough and are bare-rooted when planted in the field. Seedlings grown in individual containers have an intact root system encapsulated in a soil plug for planting. In either case, the system can be highly mechanized. To…

Western painting: Body and performance art: His notorious Seedbed (1972) involved him masturbating under a ramp in a gallery. As he imagined the audience walking above him, his groans were relayed to them via a loudspeaker. The work both empowered him, insofar as he achieved gratification, and disempowered him, insofar as he was…

anthomyiid fly: The seedcorn maggot (D. platura) feeds on the seeds and seedlings of a variety of crops, including corn (maize), peas, and different types of beans. Damaged seeds either develop into weak plants or fail to sprout. This species has a short life cycle and produces three…

seedeater, broadly, any songbird that lives chiefly on seeds and typically has a more or less strong conical bill for crushing them. In this sense, the term includes the sparrows, buntings, finches, grosbeaks, canaries, weavers, and waxbills. Seedeater also is the particular name of about 30

arboriculture: …plants may be propagated by seeding, grafting, layering, or cutting. In seeding, seeds are usually planted in either a commercial or home nursery in which intensive care can be given for several years until the plants are of a size suitable for transplanting on the desired site. In soil layering,…

crystal: Vapour growth: …growth of a crystal is seeding, in which a small piece of crystal of the proper structure and orientation, called a seed, is introduced into the container. The gas molecules find the seed a more favourable surface than the walls and preferentially deposit there. Once the molecule is on the…

lower vascular plant, any of the spore-bearing vascular plants, including the ferns, club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts, horsetails, and whisk ferns. Once considered of the same evolutionary line, these plants were formerly placed in the single group Pteridophyta and were known as the ferns and

germination: Seedling emergence: Active growth in the embryo, other than swelling resulting from imbibition, usually begins with the emergence of the primary root, known as the radicle, from the seed, although in some species (e.g., the coconut) the shoot, or plumule, emerges first. Early growth is…

William Soutar: His “bairn-rhymes” in Scots, Seeds in the Wind (1933), are beast fables that express a mature insight into the life of things viewed with the “innocent eye” of childhood. In Poems in Scots (1935) he developed the ballad style toward the objective expression of individual lyricism. During his last…

Explore other Botanize! episodes and learn more about the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Melissa Petruzzello: Good day, listeners. Thanks for tuning in to Botanize! I’m your host, Melissa Petruzzello, Encyclopædia Britannica’s plant and environmental science editor. So far in this series, we’ve talked

punk: …rock by groups such as the Seeds, the 13th Floor Elevators, and ? (Question Mark) and the Mysterians. Meanwhile, other American groups such as the MC5, Iggy and the Stooges, and the New York Dolls had begun to use hard rock to reflect and define youthful angst. By 1975 punk…

seedsnipe, any of four species of South American birds comprising the family Thinocoridae (order Charadriiformes). The seedsnipe, related to such shorebirds as the gulls and terns, is adapted to a diet of seeds and greens. Seedsnipes are streaked birds with short, rounded tail and long wings. They

Harriette Arnow: …Plateau (in Kentucky and Tennessee): Seedtime on the Cumberland (1960) and The Flowering of the Cumberland (1963).

Pete Seeger: Blacklisted: …New Lost City Ramblers; sister Peggy Seeger, a singer and multi-instrumentalist, became one of the driving forces behind the British folk music revival with Ewan McColl, her partner in life and in music making.) As a solo performer, he was still a victim of blacklisting, especially after his 1961 conviction…

Pete Seeger was a singer-songwriter and activist who sustained the American folk music tradition and who was one of the principal inspirations for younger performers in the folk revival of the 1960s. He wrote numerous songs that became folk standards and was a lifelong champion of many left-wing

Pete Seeger was a singer-songwriter and activist who sustained the American folk music tradition and who was one of the principal inspirations for younger performers in the folk revival of the 1960s. He wrote numerous songs that became folk standards and was a lifelong champion of many left-wing

Hercules Seghers was a Dutch painter and etcher of stark, fantastic landscapes. Seghers studied with Gillis van Coninxloo in Amsterdam and was influenced by the work of Adam Elsheimer. Seghers’s style contrasts strongly with the main aspects of the Dutch output of that period; most of his works

Angela Merkel: The migrant crisis and softening support: Horst Seehofer, Merkel’s interior minister and the head of the CSU, tendered his provisional resignation in June 2018 in a battle over Merkel’s immigration policy. The split threatened to topple the German government, but Merkel once again demonstrated her mastery of compromise, and Seehofer rescinded…

seeing, in astronomy, sharpness of a telescopic image. Seeing is dependent upon the degree of turbulence in the Earth’s atmosphere for a given telescope. Scintillation, the “twinkling” of stars to the unaided eye, is a commonly known result of turbulence in the higher reaches of the atmosphere.

guide dog, dog that is professionally trained to guide, protect, or aid its master. Systematic training of guide dogs originated in Germany during World War I to aid blinded veterans. Seeing Eye dog, a moniker often used synonymously with guide dog, refers to a guide dog trained by The Seeing Eye,

Dorothy Leib Harrison Wood Eustis: …to the United States, incorporated The Seeing Eye, Inc., and established a training school for dogs and owners in Nashville. The school settled permanently in Whippany, New Jersey, in 1932.

Pharrell Williams: N.E.R.D., early solo work, and Despicable Me: … (2002), Fly or Die (2004), Seeing Sounds (2008), and Nothing (2010). Williams also struck out on his own with the 2003 single “Frontin’ ” and the 2006 album In My Mind. He branched out into soundtrack composition as well, scoring the animated film Despicable Me (2010). Noted composer Hans Zimmer…

Seamus Heaney: …The Haw Lantern (1987), and Seeing Things (1991). The Spirit Level (1996) concerns the notion of centredness and balance in both the natural and the spiritual senses. His Opened Ground: Selected Poems, 1966–1996 was published in 1998. In Electric Light (2001) and District and Circle (2006), he returned to the…

Mary Gordon: …memoirs The Shadow Man (1996), Seeing Through Places (2000), and Circling My Mother (2007).

Linda Hogan: …books—including the volumes of poetry Seeing Through the Sun (1985), Savings (1988), and Dark. Sweet. (2014) and the novels Mean Spirit (1990), Solar Storms (1995), and People of the Whale (2008)—address ecological issues and the dispossession of Native Americans. Hogan also wrote the essay collection

Oliver Sacks: In Seeing Voices (1989), he explored the ways in which sign language not only provides the deaf with a means of communication but also serves as the foundation for a discrete culture. In An Anthropologist on Mars (1995), he documented the lives of seven patients living…

Christianity: Faith and reason: upon Ludwig Wittgenstein’s concept of seeing-as (Philosophical Investigations, 1953). Wittgenstein pointed to the epistemological significance of puzzle pictures, such as the ambiguous “duck-rabbit” that can be seen either as a duck’s head facing one way or a rabbit’s head facing another way. The enlarged concept of experiencing-as (developed by the…

Moshoeshoe II was the first king of Lesotho, who struggled to define the monarchy as he was twice sent into exile and was once deposed. He was educated locally at Roma College, Maseru, and in Great Britain at Ampleforth College and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. The descendant and namesake of

Seeker, member of any of numerous small groups of separatist Puritans in 16th-century England who sought new prophets to reveal God’s true church. Seekers subscribed to the principles of Caspar Schwenckfeld of Lower Silesia, Sebastian Franck of Swabia, Dirck Coornhert of the Netherlands, and other

Seekonk River, navigable stream about 5 miles (8 km) long formed by the widened Blackstone River at Pawtucket, R.I., U.S. The Seekonk joins the Providence River at Providence city; it is the most northerly point of Narragansett Bay tidewater. Seekonk is an Indian name possibly meaning “At the

Selandian Stage, division of Paleocene rocks, representing all rocks deposited worldwide during the Selandian Age (61.6 million to 59.2 million years ago) of the Paleogene Period (66 million to 23 million years ago). The Selandian Stage is named for marine strata in the Seeland region of Denmark.

dinosaur: Reconstruction and classification: …1887 by his fellow Englishman H.G. Seeley, who noticed that all dinosaurs possessed one of two distinctive pelvic designs, one like that of birds and the other like that of reptiles. Accordingly, he divided the dinosaurs into the orders Ornithischia (having a birdlike pelvis) and Saurischia (having a reptilian pelvis).…

Sarah Edmonds was an American soldier who fought, disguised as a man, in the Civil War. Sarah Edmonson received scant education as a child, and sometime in the 1850s she ran away from home. For a time she was an itinerant seller of Bibles, dressing as a man and using the name Frank Thompson. She

DNA computing: Biochemistry-based information technology: American biochemist Nadrian Seeman was an early pioneer of DNA-based nanotechnology, which originally used this particular molecule purely as a nanoscale “scaffold” for the manipulation and control of other molecules. American computer scientist Erik Winfree worked with Seeman to show how two-dimensional “sheets” of DNA-based “tiles” (effectively…

Chevy Chase: Hit movies: Caddyshack, Fletch, and National Lampoon’s Vacation: …later reunited with Hawn on Seems Like Old Times (1980), playing a man wrongfully accused of robbing a bank; the comedy was written by Neil Simon. In 1981 Chase portrayed an air-traffic controller who develops telekinesis in Modern Problems. Both films received mixed reviews, though they were moderately successful at…

spring: …perceptible current is called a seep. Wells are holes excavated to bring water and other underground fluids to the surface.

seepage, in soil engineering, movement of water in soils, often a critical problem in building foundations. Seepage depends on several factors, including permeability of the soil and the pressure gradient, essentially the combination of forces acting on water through gravity and other factors.

cancer: Statistical records: …survival, and mortality is the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program, sponsored by the U.S. National Cancer Institute. SEER was established in 1973 in order to facilitate the collection and publication of data from population-based cancer registries in the United States. The figures are updated every year and are…

divination, the practice of determining the hidden significance or cause of events, sometimes foretelling the future, by various natural, psychological, and other techniques. Found in all civilizations, both ancient and modern, it is encountered most frequently in contemporary mass society in the

Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner: …Geisterwelt in die unsere (1829; The Seer of Prevorst. Disclosures About the Inner Life of Men and the Projection of a Spiritworld into Ours).

diviner’s sage, (Salvia divinorum), hallucinogenic plant of the mint family (Lamiaceae) endemic to the highlands of Oaxaca, Mexico. Diviner’s sage has a long history of use by Mazatec shamans of northern Oaxaca, who ingest its fresh leaves or leaf preparations for spiritual rituals and healing

mackerel: …species, among them: the barred Spanish mackerel (S. commerson), an Indo-Pacific fish said to weigh up to 45 kg (100 pounds); the king mackerel, or kingfish (S. cavalla), a western Atlantic fish about 170 cm long and weighing 36 kg or more; and the cero, or painted mackerel (S. regalis),…

Eugène Seers was a French Canadian poet and critic who is regarded as the first major literary critic of Quebec. While a member of the religious order Congrégation de Très Saint-Sacrement, he wrote religious poetry, short stories, and critical articles, especially on the poetry of Émile Nelligan.

Prithviraj Kapoor: …with the even more successful Seeta, a film in which he played Rama, opposite Durga Khote in the title role. His most popular New Theatres film was Vidyapati (1937), Bose’s impressively mounted chronicle of the life of the court poet of the kingdom of Mithila (the area of ancient Videha,…

Hema Malini: Early films and breakthrough: …twins separated at birth in Seeta Aur Geeta, for which she won the 1973 Filmfare Award for best actress.

Tyla is a South African singer who gained international recognition when a video of a live performance of her 2023 single “Water,” featuring the bacardi, a contemporary South African dance style, went viral on social media. She dubbed her music “popiano,” a mix of pop with amapiano, the South

Kanem-Bornu: …trading empire ruled by the Sef (Sayf) dynasty that controlled the area around Lake Chad from the 9th to the 19th century. Its territory at various times included what is now southern Chad, northern Cameroon, northeastern Nigeria, eastern Niger, and southern Libya.

Sephardi, member or descendant of the Jews who lived in Spain and Portugal from at least the later centuries of the Roman Empire until their persecution and mass expulsion from those countries in the last decades of the 15th century. The Sephardim initially fled to North Africa and other parts of

Sephardi, member or descendant of the Jews who lived in Spain and Portugal from at least the later centuries of the Roman Empire until their persecution and mass expulsion from those countries in the last decades of the 15th century. The Sephardim initially fled to North Africa and other parts of

Ladino language, Romance language spoken by Sephardic Jews living mostly in Israel, the Balkans, North Africa, Greece, and Turkey. Ladino is very nearly extinct in many of these areas. A very archaic form of Castilian Spanish mixed somewhat with Hebrew elements (as well as Aramaic, Arabic, Turkish,

calligraphy: Old Hebrew: …was the Early Sefardic (Spharadic), with examples dating between 600 and 1200 ce. The Classic Sefardic hand appears between 1100 and 1600 ce. The Ashkenazic style of Hebrew writing exhibits French and German Gothic overtones of the so-called black-letter styles (see below Latin-alphabet handwriting: The black-letter, or Gothic, style…

Sephardi, member or descendant of the Jews who lived in Spain and Portugal from at least the later centuries of the Roman Empire until their persecution and mass expulsion from those countries in the last decades of the 15th century. The Sephardim initially fled to North Africa and other parts of

Eldad ben Mahli ha-Dani: His Hebrew narrative, Sefer Eldad, established his reputation as a philologist whom leading medieval Jewish grammarians and lexicographers quoted as an authority on linguistic difficulties. It appeared in several languages and in widely deviating versions. The first edition was published at the Italian city of Mantua in 1480.

Haim Naḥman Bialik: Ravnitzky) and edited Sefer ha-agadah (1907/08–1910/11; The Book of Legends), a collection of traditional Jewish homilies and legends. He also edited the poems of the medieval poet and philosopher Ibn Gabirol and began a popular modern commentary on the Mishna (the codification of Jewish oral laws).

Sefer ha-bahir, (Hebrew: “Book of Brightness”), largely symbolic commentary on the Old Testament, the basic motif of which is the mystical significance of the shapes and sounds of the Hebrew alphabet. The influence of the Bahir on the development of Kabbala (esoteric Jewish mysticism) was profound

Elijah Bokher Levita: …on Hebrew grammar, Levita produced Sefer ha-Baḥur [Bokher] (1518; “Book of Baḥur”), which was widely used and went into many editions. About the same time, he published a table of paradigms and an annotated dictionary of irregular word forms found in the Bible. A work on phonetics and various aspects…

Joseph Kimhi: Kimhi’s work on Jewish apologetics, Sefer ha-Berit (“Book of the Covenant”), is important for its historical information on the position of the Jews in Provence. He also established himself as a poet of considerable merit and was frequently quoted by later generations. His Shekel hakodesh (“The Holy Shekel”) was published…

Abraham ben David Halevi ibn Daud: …for his major philosophic work, Sefer ha-emuna ha-rama (“Book of Sublime Faith”), extant only in Hebrew and German translations.

Judaism: Saʿadia ben Joseph: …Kitāb al-amānāt wa al-iʿtiqādāt (Beliefs and Opinions), is modeled on similar Muʿtazilite treatises and on the Muʿtazilite classification of theological subject matter known as the Five Principles.

Joseph Kimhi: Another work, Sefer ha-galui (“Book of the Demonstration”), dealing with lexicography and questions of exegesis, served as a vehicle for criticizing the work of Jacob ben Meir Tam, the leading Talmudic scholar of the time. Among his critical commentaries on various books of the Old Testament, those…

Isaac ben Solomon Israeli: Of his philosophical writings, Kitāb al-ḥudūd (Hebrew: Sefer ha-gevulim, “The Book of Definitions”) is best known. Beginning with a discussion of Aristotle’s four types of inquiry, Israeli goes on to present 56 definitions, including definitions of wisdom, intellect, soul, nature, reason, love, locomotion, and time. Others of his philosophical…