DNA computing, the performing of computations using biological molecules, rather than traditional silicon chips. The idea that individual molecules (or even atoms) could be used for computation dates to 1959, when American physicist Richard Feynman presented his ideas on nanotechnology. However,

DNA computing, the performing of computations using biological molecules, rather than traditional silicon chips. The idea that individual molecules (or even atoms) could be used for computation dates to 1959, when American physicist Richard Feynman presented his ideas on nanotechnology. However,

molecular gastronomy: Historical precedents and development: …culinary transformation, whereas the term molecular cooking and its variations should be used to describe the culinary trend in which chefs use “new” tools, ingredients, and methods developed through research in molecular gastronomy. Molecular cuisine is used for designating a culinary style using the new techniques.

molecular gastronomy: Historical precedents and development: …culinary transformation, whereas the term molecular cooking and its variations should be used to describe the culinary trend in which chefs use “new” tools, ingredients, and methods developed through research in molecular gastronomy. Molecular cuisine is used for designating a culinary style using the new techniques.

chemical bonding: Molecular solids: The structures of molecular solids, which are solids composed of individual molecules, have also been touched on in the section on intermolecular forces. These molecules are held to one another by hydrogen bonds (if they can form them), dispersion forces, and other dipolar…

molecular gastronomy: Historical precedents and development: …culinary transformation, whereas the term molecular cooking and its variations should be used to describe the culinary trend in which chefs use “new” tools, ingredients, and methods developed through research in molecular gastronomy. Molecular cuisine is used for designating a culinary style using the new techniques.

chemical kinetics: Molecular dynamics: The second theoretical approach to chemical kinetics is referred to as molecular dynamics, or reaction dynamics. It is a more detailed treatment of reactions and is designed to investigate the atomic motions that occur during a chemical reaction and the quantum states of…

grey goo: Molecular electronics—a subfield of nanotechnology where individual molecules can become circuit elements—would make it possible to manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic level, and this, combined with advances in the physical sciences and gene technology, would make it possible for enormous transformative power to…

excitation: …nucleus, an atom, or a molecule—that results in its alteration, ordinarily from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state).

evolution: Molecular evolution: The methods for obtaining the nucleotide sequences of DNA have enormously improved since the 1980s and have become largely automated. Many genes have been sequenced in numerous organisms, and the complete genome has been sequenced in various species ranging…

magnetism: Role of exchange interaction: …of an effective internal, or molecular, field Hint, which is proportional in size to the magnetization M; that is, Hint = λM in which λ is an empirical parameter. The resulting magnetization M equals χp(H + λM), in which χp is the susceptibility that the substance would have in the…

separation and purification: Separations based on rates: …divided in half by a porous membrane, and a solution of different proteins is placed in one section and pure water in the other, some of the proteins will be able to diffuse freely through the membrane, while others will be too large to fit through the holes or pores.…

mass spectrometry: Organic chemistry: Once the molecular formula is known it is possible to deduce the total of rings and double bonds making up the molecular structure and to begin to speculate on possible structural formulas. In order to deduce structural formulas from molecular formulas, it is essential to study the…

molecular gastronomy, the scientific discipline concerned with the physical and chemical transformations that occur during cooking. The name is sometimes mistakenly given to the application of scientific knowledge to the creation of new dishes and culinary techniques. The scientific

heredity: Molecular genetics: The data accumulated by scientists of the early 20th century provided compelling evidence that chromosomes are the carriers of genes. But the nature of the genes themselves remained a mystery, as did the mechanism by which they exert their influence. Molecular genetics—the study…

hydrogen cloud, interstellar matter in which hydrogen is mostly neutral, rather than ionized or molecular. Most of the matter between the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, as well as in other spiral galaxies, occurs in the form of relatively cold neutral hydrogen gas. Neutral hydrogen clouds are

mass spectrometry: Field ionization: …is little fragmentation of the molecular ions, making molecular formulas easier to determine.

nuclear reactor: Enrichment: …known generically as MLIS (molecular laser isotope separation)—or commercially as SILEX (separation of isotopes by laser excitation)—gaseous UF6 is exposed to high-powered lasers tuned to the correct frequencies to cause the molecules containing 235U (but not 238U) to lose electrons. In this (ionized) form, the 235U-containing molecules are separated…

halogen: Relative reactivity: …state the halogen elements form molecular lattices, and the sublimation energies rise with increasing size of the molecules.

How small are the smallest machines? Put simply, they are almost unimaginably tiny. Thanks to breakthroughs in the field of mechanical bond chemistry—the study of physical attachments (as opposed to chemical bonds) that exist between interlocked molecules—the smallest machines now possible measure

molecular weight, mass of a molecule of a substance, based on 12 as the atomic weight of carbon-12. It is calculated in practice by summing the atomic weights of the atoms making up the substance’s molecular formula. The units of molecular weight are atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). The

hydrocarbon: Cycloalkanes: …in computational methods such as molecular mechanics, whereby the total strain energies of various conformations are calculated and compared (see also chemical bonding: Computational approaches to molecular structure). The structure with the lowest total energy is the most stable and corresponds to the best combination of bond distances, bond angles,…

chemical bonding: Molecular orbital theory: … of an atom, so a molecular orbital (an MO) is a wave function that describes the distribution of an electron over all the nuclei of a molecule. If the amplitude of the MO wave function is large in the vicinity of a particular atom, then the electron has a high…

chemical bonding: Molecular orbitals of H2 and He2: The molecular orbital energy-level diagram, which is a diagram that shows the relative energies of molecular orbitals, for the H2 molecule is shown in Figure 13. On either side of the central ladder are shown the energies of the 1s orbitals of atoms A and B,…

chemical bonding: Molecular orbital theory: The alternative quantum mechanical theory of the electronic structures of molecules is MO theory. This approach was introduced about the same time as VB theory but has proved more amenable to quantitative implementation on computers. It is now virtually the only technique…

human genetic disease: Molecular oxygen: Molecular oxygen (O2), although essential for life, must be counted among the environmental toxins and mutagens. Because of its unusual electronic structure, O2 is most easily reduced not by electron pairs but rather by single electrons added one at a time. As O2…

analytic philosophy: Logical atomism: More complex propositions, called molecular propositions, are built up out of atomic propositions via the logical connectives—such as “… or …,” “… and …,” and “… not …”—and the truth-value of the molecular proposition is in each case a function of the truth-values of its component atomic propositions.

carbonium ion: Reactions.: …with internal sigma base: acid-catalyzed rearrangement of neopentyl alcohol, the electron pair coming from an internal carbon–carbon sigma bond:

coordination compound: History of coordination compounds: Werner also established the configuration (the spatial arrangement of ligands around the metal ion) of complexes by comparing the number and type of isomers (see below Isomerism) that he actually prepared for various series of compounds with the number and type theoretically predicted for various configurations. In this way…

molecular sieve, a porous solid, usually a synthetic or a natural zeolite, that separates particles of molecular dimension. Zeolites are hydrated metal aluminosilicate compounds with well-defined crystalline structures. The silicate and aluminate groupings form three-dimensional crystal lattices

chemical bonding: Molecular solids: The structures of molecular solids, which are solids composed of individual molecules, have also been touched on in the section on intermolecular forces. These molecules are held to one another by hydrogen bonds (if they can form them), dispersion forces, and other dipolar…

spectroscopy: Molecular spectroscopy: A molecule is a collection of positively charged atomic nuclei surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Its stability results from a balance among the attractive and repulsive forces of the

spectrum: Band spectra is the name given to groups of lines so closely spaced that each group appears to be a band—e.g., nitrogen spectrum. Band spectra, or molecular spectra, are produced by molecules radiating their rotational or vibrational energies, or both simultaneously.

molecule, a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance. The division of a sample of a substance into progressively smaller parts produces no change in

molecular weight, mass of a molecule of a substance, based on 12 as the atomic weight of carbon-12. It is calculated in practice by summing the atomic weights of the atoms making up the substance’s molecular formula. The units of molecular weight are atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). The

advanced ceramics: Film deposition: …by molecular beam epitaxy, or MBE. In this technique molecular beams are directed at and react with other molecular beams at the substrate surface to produce atomic layer-by-layer deposition of the ceramic. Epitaxy (in which the crystallinity of the growing thin film matches that of the substrate) can often be…

gel chromatography, in analytical chemistry, technique for separating chemical substances by exploiting the differences in the rates at which they pass through a bed of a porous, semisolid substance. The method is especially useful for separating enzymes, proteins, peptides, and amino acids from

reaction mechanism: Molecularity: The mechanism of an individual stage of a reaction can be described as unimolecular, bimolecular, and so on, according to the number of molecules necessarily concerned in covalency change in the transition state. As an extension of this classification, the number of molecules involved…

molecule, a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance. The division of a sample of a substance into progressively smaller parts produces no change in

Rain Man: Bruner (Gerald R. Molen) and Raymond (Hoffman). Raymond is an autistic savant, and Dr. Bruner spends some time explaining Raymond’s abilities and limitations to Charlie. Charlie takes Raymond out of the facility without permission, and the two brothers and Susanna spend the night in a motel…

Brussels: People: …notably in the communes of Molenbeek-Saint-Jean (Flemish: Sint-Jans-Molenbeek), Saint-Gilles (Sint-Gillis), Schaerbeek (Schaarbeek), and Saint-Josse-ten-Noode (Sint-Joost-ten-Node). All these immigrant groups brought increased ethnic and religious diversity to the historically Roman Catholic city. Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, for example, boasts an important Turkish community, and Schaerbeek has a relatively large number of mosques and

guinea pig: …Brazil and Uruguay; and the Moleques do Sul guinea pig (C. intermedia), which is limited to an island in the Moleques do Sul archipelago off the southern coast of Brazil. Breeding and molecular studies suggest that the domestic guinea pig was derived from one of the wild Brazilian, shiny, or…

computational aesthetics: History: …Bense and, independently, French engineer Abraham Moles combined Birkhoff’s work with American engineer Claude Shannon’s information theory to come up with a scientific means of attempting to understand aesthetics. The ideas of Bense, which he called information aesthetics, and Moles were influential on some of the first computer-generated art, but…

Jacob Moleschott was a physiologist and philosopher noted for his belief in the material basis of emotion and thought. His most important work, Kreislauf des Lebens (1852; “The Circuit of Life”), added considerable impetus to 19th-century materialism by demanding “scientific answers to scientific

fustian: …which have pile surfaces, including moleskin, velveteen, and corduroy.

children’s literature: Coming of age (1865–1945): …(Jan of the Windmill); and Mrs. Molesworth; and, furthering this trend, a growing literary population of real, or at least more real, children (by E. Nesbit and Ransome).

Raymond Moley was an American journalist and public figure, leader of the so-called Brain Trust of advisers to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After graduating from Baldwin-Wallace College in his hometown, Moley took a job as superintendent of schools at Olmstead Falls, Ohio. He then attended

incandescent lamp: Electric incandescent lamps: Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp in 1841; he used powdered charcoal heated between two platinum wires. Commercial development of an incandescent lamp was delayed until a filament could be made that would heat to incandescence without…

Molfetta, town and episcopal see, Puglia (Apulia) regione, southeastern Italy. It lies along the Adriatic Sea, northwest of Bari city. An important port in the Middle Ages and a free city for a time, it was sacked by the French in 1529. Although Molfetta is mainly modern, its outstanding

Celtic literature: The Middle Ages: …in the heroic tradition, including Moliant Cadwallon (“The Eulogy of Cadwallon”), by Afan Ferddig, the elegy on Cynddylan ap Cyndrwyn of Powys in the first half of the 7th century, and Edmyg Dinbych (“The Eulogy of Tenby”), by an unknown South Wales poet. Poetry claiming to foretell the future is…

mola, any of five species of oceanic fishes of the family Molidae. Molas have a distinctive bullet-shaped appearance, with a short body that ends abruptly in a thick rudderlike structure called a clavus just behind the tall triangular dorsal and anal fins. The development of the clavus results from

Molière was a French actor and playwright who became the greatest of all writers of French comedy. Although the sacred and secular authorities of 17th-century France often combined against him, the genius of Molière finally emerged to win him acclaim. Comedy had a long history before Molière, who

Mikhail Bulgakov: …tragedy on the death of Molière, Molière. A revised version was finally staged in 1936 and had a run of seven nights before it was banned because of its thinly disguised attack on Stalin and the Communist Party.

Raiders of the Lost Ark: Plot and characters: …by two guides, Satipo (Alfred Molina) and Barranca (Vic Tablian). Treacherous Barranca attempts to shoot Jones, but Jones’s trusty bullwhip disarms him. Jones and Satipo enter an ancient cavernous temple, narrowly avoiding various deadly booby traps until they reach a small golden idol. Jones retrieves the relic from a…

José Napoleon Duarte: Arturo Molina the winner. Following a radio broadcast supporting a coup, Duarte was arrested by the army, beaten, and sent into exile in Venezuela for more than seven years.

Carlos María Isidro de Borbón, conde de Molina was the first Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne (as Charles V) and the second surviving son of King Charles IV (see Carlism). Don Carlos was imprisoned in Napoleonic France from 1808 to 1814. During the period of liberal rule (1820–23) he was

Luis de Molina was a Spanish Jesuit who devised the theological system known as Molinism, which endeavoured to confirm that man’s will remains free under the action of divine grace. Molina became a Jesuit at the University of Coimbra, Port. (1553), where he studied philosophy and theology

Mario Molina was a Mexican-born American chemist who was jointly awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, along with chemists F. Sherwood Rowland and Paul Crutzen, for research in the 1970s concerning the decomposition of the ozonosphere, which shields Earth from dangerous solar radiation. The

Mario Molina was a Mexican-born American chemist who was jointly awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, along with chemists F. Sherwood Rowland and Paul Crutzen, for research in the 1970s concerning the decomposition of the ozonosphere, which shields Earth from dangerous solar radiation. The

cacos: …as José Matías Delgado and Pedro Molina, liberals who demanded independence under a federalist anticlerical constitution. They were opposed by the more conservative gazistas, led by José Cecilio del Valle, who insisted upon protection for private property and gradual change but also advocated safeguarding political liberties. Rivalry over political power,…

Tirso de Molina was one of the outstanding dramatists of the Golden Age of Spanish literature. Tirso studied at the University of Alcalá and in 1601 was professed in the Mercedarian Order. As the order’s official historian he wrote Historia general de la orden de la Merced in 1637. He was also a

Connie Hawkins: …money and other favours from—Jack Molinas, a former NBA player who had been banned from the league after less than one year for betting on games. In 1961 authorities brought down an extensive college basketball point-shaving ring masterminded by Molinas. His relationship with Hawkins threw the young man’s integrity…

Moline, city, Rock Island county, northwestern Illinois, U.S. It lies on the Mississippi River (there bridged to Iowa). With East Moline and Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport and Bettendorf, Iowa, it forms a complex known as the Quad Cities. Sauk and Fox Indians inhabited the area at the time of

boxing: The Queensberry rules: …slaves—Bill Richmond and his protégé Tom Molineaux. Both Richmond and Molineaux fought against the top English pugilists of the day; indeed, Molineaux fought Tom Cribb twice for the championship title, in 1810 and 1811. Soon British champions began touring the United States and fighting American opponents.

John Alden and Priscilla Alden: Priscilla Mullins went to America with her parents and younger brother. The other three members of her family died during the terrible first winter of the Plymouth Colony. Probably in 1623 she and John were married. They lived in Plymouth until about 1631, when they…

Jean Molinet was a poet and chronicler who was a leading figure among the Burgundian rhetoricians and is best remembered for his version of the Roman de la rose. Molinet studied in Paris and about 1464 entered the service of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, becoming secretary to Georges

Luis de Molina: …the theological system known as Molinism, which endeavoured to confirm that man’s will remains free under the action of divine grace.

Miguel de Molinos was a Spanish priest condemned for advocating an extreme form of Quietism, a doctrine that came to be considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. Ordained in 1652, Molinos in 1663 was sent to Rome. There, in 1675, he published his Spiritual Guide, a small handbook teaching

Joan Rivers was an American entertainer who launched her career in show business in the 1960s as a raspy-voiced no-holds-barred nightclub and television comic and who was especially known for skewering both herself and celebrities. After graduating from Barnard College, Rivers joined (1961) the

Molise, regione, southeast-central Italy. It consists of the provinces of Campobasso and Isernia and was created in 1965 from the southern portion of the former region of Abruzzi e Molise. The region’s western sector is part of the mountainous Apennines; it is drained by the Volturno River westward

Paul Molitor is a retired professional baseball player whose .306 lifetime batting average and 3,319 career hits made him one of the most consistent offensive players in Major League Baseball (MLB) history. Molitor was all-state in baseball and basketball in high school and all-conference in both

Paul Molitor is a retired professional baseball player whose .306 lifetime batting average and 3,319 career hits made him one of the most consistent offensive players in Major League Baseball (MLB) history. Molitor was all-state in baseball and basketball in high school and all-conference in both

Moll Cutpurse was the most notorious female member of 17th-century England’s underworld. She was a thief, an entertainer, a receiver (fence) and broker of stolen goods, and a celebrated cross-dresser. Because much of the historical material relating to her life is fragmented, prejudiced,

Moll Flanders, picaresque novel by Daniel Defoe, published in 1722. The novel recounts the adventures of a lusty and strong-willed woman who is compelled, from earliest childhood, to make her own way in 17th-century England. The plot is summed up in the novel’s full title: The Fortunes and

Western sculpture: Central Europe: …18th century, as represented by Balthasar Ferdinand Moll, inclined more toward a realistic Rococo style than to the Classicism of Donner; and, although the strange, neurotic genius Franz Xavier Messerschmidt began in this style, at the end of his career he produced a startling series of grimacing heads when he…

azalea: Major species: …have been bred, including the molle azalea (R. molle), the Yodogawa azalea (R. yedoense), and the torch azalea (R. kaempferi).

Molle Islands, group of four small formations on the Great Barrier Reef, in Whitsunday Passage in the Coral Sea, 3 miles (5 km) off the northeastern coast of Queensland, Australia. In 1815 the patch of water behind the group was named Port Molle for Colonel George Molle. The name was later applied

Belize: Resources and power: …plant and that of nearby Mollejon Dam.

Mollen Commission, commission created by New York City Mayor David Dinkins in 1994 to assess the extent of corruption in the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Informally named for its chairman, Milton Mollen, the city’s former deputy mayor for public safety, the commission uncovered blatant

Mollendo, city, Peru, on the Pacific coast. Founded in 1872, its site was chosen by the American engineer Henry Meiggs, builder of the Arequipa-Mollendo Railroad. Additional rail connections to local mines and to Puno and Lake Titicaca, supplemented by its artificial harbour and the Pan-American

Lillian Evelyn Gilbreth was an American psychologist and engineer who, with her husband, Frank Bunker Gilbreth, developed methods to increase the efficiency of industrial employees, most notably time-and-motion study. Moller received bachelor’s and master’s degrees in literature from the University

Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock: In 1754 he married Margarethe (Meta) Moller of Hamburg, who was the “Cidli” of his odes. Grief over her early death affected his creativity. A collection of his Oden (“Odes”) was published in 1771. In 1770 he retired to Hamburg, where the last five cantos of Der Messias were…

Poul Martin Møller was a Danish author whose novel of student life, the first in his country’s literature that dealt with the contemporary scene, marked an important stage in the history of Danish literature. His aphorism, “All poetry that does not come from life is a lie,” sums up his realistic

Guy Mollet was a Socialist politician who served as premier of France from January 1956 to May 1957. His premiership failed to deal successfully with the pressing issue of the day, the Algerian rebellion. A teacher of English at the Arras lycée, Mollet joined the Socialist Party in 1921. In 1939 he

Gaspard-Théodore Mollien was a French explorer and diplomat who was one of the earliest European explorers of the West African interior; his reports revealed an unimagined variety of geography and cultures to Europe. Mollien reached the French colonial station of Saint-Louis, Senegal, in 1817 and

Nicolas-François, Count Mollien was a French statesman and one of Napoleon’s chief financial advisers. Mollien worked in the office that controlled the activities of the farmers general (private contractors who collected oppressive taxes from the peasants, often by harsh measures) from 1781, and in

John Alden and Priscilla Alden: Priscilla Mullins went to America with her parents and younger brother. The other three members of her family died during the terrible first winter of the Plymouth Colony. Probably in 1623 she and John were married. They lived in Plymouth until about 1631, when they…

Mollisol, one of the 12 soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Mollisols are characterized by a significant accumulation of humus in the surface horizon, or uppermost layer, which is almost always formed under native grass vegetation. They are highly arable soils used principally for growing grain

permaculture: Bruce Charles (“Bill”) Mollison, an Australian biogeography and environmental psychology professor, coined the term permaculture, a portmanteau of permanent and agriculture, in 1978. As of the early 21st century, permaculture was practiced by more than three million people in 140 countries.

pocket shark, (genus Mollisquama), either of two species of enigmatic small deepwater sharks known for the presence of internal pockets located near their pectoral fins. Pocket sharks are known from only two specimens, collected in 1979 and 2010 from different marine environments. The pocket shark

pocket shark: Classification and distribution: …as a separate species, the American pocket shark (M. mississippiensis). Both species were collected from mid-water trawls at depths between 330 and 580 metres (approximately 1,100 and 1,900 feet), with the actual seafloor depth in each habitat being considerably deeper (2,000–3,000 metres [roughly 6,600–9,800 feet]).

pocket shark: Classification and distribution: The pocket shark (Mollisquama parini) was described in 1984 from a single specimen of a large female collected near the Nazca Ridge in the southeast Pacific Ocean in 1979. A second specimen, a juvenile male, was collected in 2010 in the northern Gulf of Mexico and first described…

It Happened Here: …years by Kevin Brownlow and Andrew Mollo, who were the movie’s directors, producers, and writers. Both were teenagers when they began working on the movie. Operating on a shoestring budget—the film reportedly cost approximately $20,000—Brownlow and Mollo used mostly amateur actors and were forced to forgo shooting for extended periods…

Molloy, French prose work by Irish writer Samuel Beckett, published in 1951. It was the first book in a trilogy written in French that included Malone meurt (1951; Malone Dies) and L’Innommable (1953; The Unnamable). Molloy is less a novel than a set of two monologues, the first narrated by Molloy

mollusk, any soft-bodied invertebrate of the phylum Mollusca, usually wholly or partly enclosed in a calcium carbonate shell secreted by a soft mantle covering the body. Along with the insects and vertebrates, it is one of the most diverse groups in the animal kingdom, with nearly 100,000 (possibly

mollusk, any soft-bodied invertebrate of the phylum Mollusca, usually wholly or partly enclosed in a calcium carbonate shell secreted by a soft mantle covering the body. Along with the insects and vertebrates, it is one of the most diverse groups in the animal kingdom, with nearly 100,000 (possibly

mollusk, any soft-bodied invertebrate of the phylum Mollusca, usually wholly or partly enclosed in a calcium carbonate shell secreted by a soft mantle covering the body. Along with the insects and vertebrates, it is one of the most diverse groups in the animal kingdom, with nearly 100,000 (possibly

Austria: War of the Austrian Succession, 1740–48: …defeat in the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741. This defeat prompted the formation of an alliance of France, Bavaria, and Spain, joined later by Saxony and eventually by Prussia itself, to dismember the Habsburg monarchy. Faced by this serious threat, Maria Theresa called together her father’s experienced advisers and…

Ecstasy: …powdered form of Ecstasy, “Molly” (so called because it was a pure “molecular” state of MDMA), emerged in the early 21st century. However, similarly with Ecstasy in its pill form, Molly is often adulterated with methylone.

molly, any of several species of tropical fish of the genus Poecilia, in the live-bearer family, Poeciliidae (order Cyprinodontiformes). Hardy and attractive, mollies are popular aquarium fish ranging from about 5 to 13 cm (2 to 5 inches) long. Well-known species include the molly (P. sphenops),