poison: Morphological versus functional toxic responses: …can be morphological (structural) or functional or both. In most cases, the chemical produces morphological changes in an organ, which in turn affects the function of the organ. In a small number of cases, the chemical produces functional changes in an organ without changing the structure of the organ.

structural functionalism, in sociology and other social sciences, a school of thought according to which each of the institutions, relationships, roles, and norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others and of society

functionalism, in psychology, a broad school of thought originating in the U.S. during the late 19th century that attempted to counter the German school of structuralism led by Edward B. Titchener. Functionalists, including psychologists William James and James Rowland Angell, and philosophers

functionalism, in the philosophy of mind, a materialist theory of mind that defines types of mental states in terms of their causal roles relative to sensory stimulation, other mental states, and physical states or behaviour. Pain, for example, might be defined as a type of neurophysiological state

functionalism, an approach to the formation of international organizations that advocates international cooperation on scientific, humanitarian, social, and economic issues. Functionalists argue that mutual trust and habits of cooperation between governments are more likely to develop through the

Functionalism, in architecture, the doctrine that the form of a building should be determined by practical considerations such as use, material, and structure, as distinct from the attitude that plan and structure must conform to a preconceived picture in the designer’s mind. Although Functionalism

functionalism, in linguistics, the approach to language study that is concerned with the functions performed by language, primarily in terms of cognition (relating information), expression (indicating mood), and conation (exerting influence). Especially associated with the Prague school of

functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc.—serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society. The approach gained prominence in the works of 19th-century sociologists,

Chester Irving Barnard: …an academic, his first book, Functions of the Executive (1938), became an essential resource in the teaching of organizational sociology and business theory.

foundations of mathematics: Abstraction in mathematics: …category of (small) categories and functors, as the morphisms between categories are called, which preserve relationships among the objects and arrows.

Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions: …and its parent corporation, the Fund for the Republic (chartered in New York in 1952), for 25 years. The purpose of the centre—to clarify the basic issues confronting a democratic society—was served through discussion and criticism, publications, and public meetings. Scholars, public officials, and leaders of thought and action from…

Italy: Public and private sectors: The Southern Development Fund (Cassa per il Mezzogiorno), a state-financed fund set up to stimulate economic and industrial development between 1950 and 1984, met with limited success. It supported early land reform—including land reclamation, irrigation work, infrastructure building, and provision of electricity and water to rural…

South America: Sociological changes: …Proteção do Indio) and the National Indian Foundation (Fundação Nacional do Indio) were established, although such organizations often have become agents for the relocation and control of Indian groups rather than for their interests and survival. Christian missionaries sometimes have acted as representatives of Indian rights. Indians of the Andean…

Sebastián Piñera: Early life and political career: …creation in 1993 of the Fundación Futuro, a nonprofit organization concerned with water preservation and renewable energy that also established Tantauco Park, an ecological park on the Chilean island of Chiloé.

lacquerwork: Japanese processes: …various depths in the lacquer; fundame, fine gold or silver powder worked to a flat, dull surface; hirame, small, irregularly shaped pieces of sheet gold or silver placed on the surface; togidashi, the design built up to the surface in gold, silver, and colours with many coats of lacquer and…

astronomy: Precise calculations and observations: …catalog of unprecedented accuracy, the Fundamenta Astronomiae (“Foundations of Astronomy”).

Carolus Linnaeus: Classification by natural characters of Carolus Linnaeus: …the form of a booklet, Fundamenta Botanica (1736; “The Foundations of Botany”), that framed the principles and rules to be followed in the classification and naming of plants.

sound: Fundamentals and harmonics: …frequency is known as the fundamental, or first harmonic.

Bonnie Raitt: Her later studio albums include Fundamental (1998), Souls Alike (2005), Grammy-winning Slipstream (2012), and Dig in Deep (2016). Her 18th studio album, Just Like That… (2022), featured several Grammy-winning tracks, most notably the eponymous single, which was named song of the year. Raitt was inducted into the Rock and Roll…

Fundamental analysis is an investing method that helps identify potential opportunities by assessing how financial and economic factors might affect a security’s future value. In the financial markets, there are two primary methods for analyzing the value of a stock or other security: fundamental

Austria: Domestic affairs, 1867–73: …of 18 articles, called the Fundamental Articles. According to that program, Bohemian affairs should be regulated along the principles of the Hungarian compromise, raising Bohemia to a status equal to Hungary. With that, Hohenwart, who had been up against violent German opposition from the first day of his appointment, aroused…

personality: Deviation from trait theory: …what has been called the fundamental attribution error. The investigators, most of them social psychologists, report that, in observing the behaviour of others, people exaggerate the role of internal causes and invoke traits as a primary cause (e.g., “John acted the way he did because he is honest”). In assigning…

electron charge, (symbol e), fundamental physical constant expressing the naturally occurring unit of electric charge, equal to 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb. In addition to the electron, all freely existing charged subatomic particles thus far discovered have an electric charge equal to this value

physical constant, any of a set of fundamental invariant quantities observed in nature and appearing in the basic theoretical equations of physics. Accurate evaluation of these constants is essential in order to check the correctness of the theories and to allow useful applications to be made on

United States: The Carolinas and Georgia: …government for the Carolinas, the Fundamental Constitutions, drafted in 1669 by Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) with the help of the philosopher John Locke, was largely ineffective because of its restrictive and feudal nature. The Fundamental Constitutions was abandoned in 1693 and replaced by a frame of government diminishing the…

dimensional analysis: …energy, and others, to their fundamental dimensions of length (L), mass (M), and time (T). This technique facilitates the study of interrelationships of systems (or models of systems) and their properties and avoids the nuisance of incompatible units. Acceleration, for example, is expressed as L/T2 in dimensional analysis because it…

international payment and exchange: Adjusting for fundamental disequilibrium: A “fundamental disequilibrium” exists when outward payments have a continuing tendency not to balance inward payments. A disequilibrium may occur for various reasons. Some may be grouped under the head of structural change (resulting from changes in tastes, habits, institutions, technology, etc.). A…

dimensional analysis: …energy, and others, to their fundamental dimensions of length (L), mass (M), and time (T). This technique facilitates the study of interrelationships of systems (or models of systems) and their properties and avoids the nuisance of incompatible units. Acceleration, for example, is expressed as L/T2 in dimensional analysis because it…

fundamental force, in physics, any of the four basic forces—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak—that govern how objects or particles interact and how certain particles decay. All the known forces of nature can be traced to these fundamental forces. The fundamental forces are

fundamental force, in physics, any of the four basic forces—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak—that govern how objects or particles interact and how certain particles decay. All the known forces of nature can be traced to these fundamental forces. The fundamental forces are

phonetics: Acoustic phonetics: …voiced sound—is determined by its fundamental frequency, or rate of repetition of the cycles of air pressure. For a speaker with a bass voice, the fundamental frequency will probably be between 75 and 150 cycles per second. Cycles per second are also called hertz (Hz); this is the standard term…

topology: Fundamental group: A very basic algebraic structure called the fundamental group of a topological space was among the algebraic ideas studied by the French mathematician Henri Poincaré in the late 19th century. This group essentially consists of curves in the space that are combined by…

John Caird: …of Religion (1880) and in The Fundamental Ideas of Christianity, 2 vol. (1899; the Gifford lectures for 1892–93 and 1894–96), both of which follow Hegelian teaching closely, Caird argues that universal thought is the reality of all things and that the existence of this Infinite Thought, namely God, is demonstrated…

Turkey: The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanate: The Kemalists were now faced with local uprisings, official Ottoman forces, and Greek hostility. The first necessity was to establish a legitimate basis of action. A parliament, the Grand National Assembly, met at Ankara on April 23 and…

Japan: Educational reforms: A Fundamental Law of Education was passed in 1947, which guaranteed academic freedom, extended the length of compulsory education from six to nine years, and provided for coeducation. Americans were convinced that Japanese education had been too concerned with rote memorization and indoctrination and that what…

Spain: Government and society: …embodied in a series of Fundamental Laws (passed between 1942 and 1967) that declared Spain a monarchy and established a legislature known as the Cortes. Yet Franco’s system of government differed radically from Spain’s modern constitutional traditions.

Fundamental Laws, (1906), laws promulgated by the Russian emperor Nicholas II, ostensibly to carry out the governmental reforms promised in his earlier October Manifesto

Austria: Ausgleich of 1867: …and became known as the December constitution, lasted until 1918. These laws granted equality before the law and freedom of press, speech, and assembly; they also protected the interests of the various nationalities, stating that

Ngo Bao Chau: …specifically “his proof of the Fundamental Lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.”

sound: Fundamentals and harmonics: …frequency is known as the fundamental, or first harmonic.

Connecticut: Political, economic, and social maturation: …the colony began with the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1638), a civil covenant by the settlers establishing the system by which the river towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield agreed to govern themselves. The orders created an annual assembly of legislators and provided for the election of a governor. Separate…

Connecticut: Political, economic, and social maturation: …the colony began with the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1638), a civil covenant by the settlers establishing the system by which the river towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield agreed to govern themselves. The orders created an annual assembly of legislators and provided for the election of a governor. Separate…

North Africa: Advent of European colonialism: …with the Ahd al-Amān, or Fundamental Pact, in 1856 and the short-lived constitution of 1860, the first in the Arab world. The Fundamental Pact guaranteed the equality before the law of all subjects—Muslim, Christian, and Jew—while the constitution provided for a consultative assembly and the administration of justice. The constitution…

subatomic particle: Elementary particles: Electrons and quarks contain no discernible structure; they cannot be reduced or separated into smaller components. It is therefore reasonable to call them “elementary” particles, a name that in the past was mistakenly given to particles such as the proton, which is in…

Zelia Maria Magdalena Nuttall: …wide-ranging investigations were published in The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations (1901), in which she traced cultural parallels between ancient Middle Eastern and American civilizations and hypothesized that culture may have been carried to the Western Hemisphere by Phoenician explorers; in Codex Nuttall (1902), a facsimile of…

Immanuel Kant: The Critique of Practical Reason of Immanuel Kant: The earlier Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (1785; Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals) is a shorter and, despite its title, more readily comprehensible treatment of the same general topic. Both differ from Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1797; The Metaphysics of Morals) in that they deal with…

Eugen Ehrlich: His major work was Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law (1913), which discusses the laws of different countries and concludes that legal development takes place less through legislation or judicial science than through the development of society itself.

Noam Chomsky: Plato’s problem: A fundamental insight of philosophical rationalism is that human creativity crucially depends on an innate system of concept generation and combination. According to Chomsky, children display “ordinary” creativity—appropriate and innovative use of complexes of concepts—from virtually their first words. With language, they bring…

Czech Republic: Constitutional framework: …the principles codified in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, which was adopted by the former Czechoslovak Federal Assembly in January 1991. The constitution provides for a bicameral Parliament consisting of a Chamber of Deputies (elected on a proportional basis for four-year terms) and a Senate (elected on a…

Lisbon Treaty: Additionally, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, initially proposed at the Council of Nice in 2000, entered into force as part of the Lisbon Treaty. It spelled out a host of civil, political, economic, and social rights guaranteed to all citizens of the EU.

Friedrich Dahlmann: …ideas were incorporated into the Declaration of Fundamental Rights, a draft constitution envisaging a constitutional monarchy under Prussian leadership, freedom of speech and religion, and equality before the law. When the Frankfurt assembly elected Frederick William IV emperor of Germany, Dahlmann was appointed a member of the deputation traveling to…

law of war: Civilians: One of the Fundamental Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, which were prepared by the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1978, requires parties to a conflict to distinguish at all times “between the civilian population and combatants in order to spare civilian population…

Christopher A. Sims: Independent shocks, called fundamental shocks, can then be interpreted using a technique called impulse-response analysis to identify their effects over time on various macroeconomic indicators. Part of the significance of Sims’s approach was that it provided a means of identifying rationally expected and rationally unexpected changes in economic…

philosophy of physics: The problem of the direction of time: …by a number of “fundamental symmetries.” A fundamental symmetry is a category of fact about the world that in principle makes no dynamical difference. Both absolute position and velocity, for example, play no dynamical role in Newtonian mechanics. Perhaps surprisingly, neither does the direction of time.

tensor analysis: Two tensors, called the metrical tensor and the curvature tensor, are of particular interest. The metrical tensor is used, for example, in converting vector components into magnitudes of vectors. For simplicity, consider the two-dimensional case with simple perpendicular coordinates. Let vector V have the components V1, V2. Then by…

fundamental theorem of algebra, theorem of equations proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1799. It states that every polynomial equation of degree n with complex number coefficients has n roots, or solutions, in the complex numbers. The roots can have a multiplicity greater than zero. For example, x2

fundamental theorem of arithmetic, Fundamental principle of number theory proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. It states that any integer greater than 1 can be expressed as the product of prime numbers in only one

fundamental theorem of calculus, Basic principle of calculus. It relates the derivative to the integral and provides the principal method for evaluating definite integrals (see differential calculus; integral calculus). In brief, it states that any function that is continuous (see continuity) over

William Donald Hamilton: …task of generalizing the famous fundamental theorem of natural selection of British geneticist and statistician R.A. Fisher, which was limited to individual fitness. Fisher’s theorem stated that populations displaying a range of fitness can evolve more quickly than populations in which the fitness of individuals is the same.

Euclidean geometry: Similarity of triangles: ) The fundamental theorem of similarity states that a line segment splits two sides of a triangle into proportional segments if and only if the segment is parallel to the triangle’s third side.

Arthur Eddington: Philosophy of science: …it was published posthumously as Fundamental Theory (1946), edited by Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, a book that is incomprehensible to most readers and perplexing in many places to all, but which represents a continuing challenge to some.

angiosperm: Ground tissue: The ground tissue system arises from a ground tissue meristem and consists of three simple tissues: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma (Figure 5). The cells of each simple tissue bear the same name as their respective tissue.

overtone: …acoustics, tone sounding above the fundamental tone when a string or air column vibrates as a whole, producing the fundamental, or first harmonic. If it vibrates in sections, it produces overtones, or harmonics. The listener normally hears the fundamental pitch clearly; with concentration, overtones may be heard.

fundamentalism, type of conservative religious movement characterized by the advocacy of strict conformity to sacred texts. Once used exclusively to refer to American Protestants who insisted on the inerrancy of the Bible, the term fundamentalism was applied more broadly beginning in the late 20th

fundamentalism: The study of fundamentalism: …most controversial—study of fundamentalism was The Fundamentalism Project (1991–95), a series of five volumes edited by the American scholars Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby. Marty and Appleby viewed fundamentalism primarily as the militant rejection of secular modernity. They argued that fundamentalism is not just traditional religiosity but an…

Christian fundamentalism, movement in American Protestantism that arose in the late 19th century in reaction to theological modernism, which aimed to revise traditional Christian beliefs to accommodate new developments in the natural and social sciences, especially the theory of biological

Islamic fundamentalism, expression of Islam that stresses strict and literal adherence to a set of basic principles. As with other religions, multiple fundamentalist movements have taken form throughout Islamic history, the earliest of which may have been the Kharijites of the 7th century. While

Paul Rudd: Career: … (2013); They Came Together (2014); The Fundamentals of Caring (2016); and Ideal Home (2018).

artificial intelligence: Symbolic vs. connectionist approaches: In The Fundamentals of Learning (1932), Edward Thorndike, a psychologist at Columbia University, New York City, first suggested that human learning consists of some unknown property of connections between neurons in the brain. In The Organization of Behavior (1949), Donald Hebb, a

Western music: Instrumental music: …Conrad Paumann’s Fundamentum organisandi (Fundamentals of Organ Playing). The compositions in both collections are of two basic types, arrangements of vocal works and keyboard pieces entitled Praeambulum (Prelude).

Christian fundamentalism: The late 19th to the mid-20th century: …and the subsequent publication of The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth (1910–15), a series of 12 booklets comprising articles by conservative leaders from across the country. The series, which would eventually give the conservatives their name, attacked modernist theories of biblical criticism and reasserted the authority of the Bible,…

Christian fundamentalism: The late 19th to the mid-20th century: …and the subsequent publication of The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth (1910–15), a series of 12 booklets comprising articles by conservative leaders from across the country. The series, which would eventually give the conservatives their name, attacked modernist theories of biblical criticism and reasserted the authority of the Bible,…

L.L. Zamenhof: His Fundamento de Esperanto (1905; 17th ed., 1979; “Basis of Esperanto”) established the principles of Esperanto structure and formation.

Johann Hedwig: …of the mosses and produced Fundamentum Historiae Naturalis Muscorum Frondosorum, 2 vol. (1782–83; “Elements of the Natural History of Leafy Mosses”), in which he dealt with the anatomy, fertilization, and reproduction of mosses and introduced a new method of classification based on the distribution of spores (reproductive bodies). Hedwig was…

Western music: Instrumental music: …Conrad Paumann’s Fundamentum organisandi (Fundamentals of Organ Playing). The compositions in both collections are of two basic types, arrangements of vocal works and keyboard pieces entitled Praeambulum (Prelude).

fundamiji, in Japanese lacquerwork, variation of the jimaki technique. In this kind of ground decoration, a thick layer of fine gold or silver grains is dusted onto a freshly lacquered surface and, when dry, covered with a clear lacquer. After this has dried, it is polished with powdered charcoal

Fundão, city, east-central Espírito Santo estado (state), eastern Brazil. It lies on the Fundão River about 28 miles (45 km) from the state capital, Vitória. Situated at an elevation of 135 feet (41 metres) above sea level in an area where the coastal plain merges into foothills, Fundão is an

Giles of Rome was a Scholastic theologian, philosopher, logician, archbishop, and general and intellectual leader of the Order of the Hermit Friars of St. Augustine. Giles joined the Augustinian Hermits in about 1257 and in 1260 went to Paris, where he was educated in the house of his order. While

delay of gratification: Delay as a motivational tendency: …American psychologists Jack Block and David Funder and their colleagues identified it as an expression of ego control—a person’s more-general tendency to inhibit impulses. On the low end of that continuum are the undercontrolled individuals who spontaneously act on their wants, without concern about the future. On the high end…

Fondi, town, Lazio (Latium) regione, south-central Italy. It lies along the Appian Way at the foot of the Aurunci Mountains, northeast of Fondi Lake and 56 miles (90 km) southeast of Rome. Originally a town of the ancient Volsci people, it received Roman citizenship in 188 bc. The town became papal

museum: Funding: Until the mid-1970s, public funds constituted the major income source for public museums and in many cases contributed a considerable percentage of the income of those operated privately. With increasing restrictions on expenditure of public moneys, however, funding from multiple…

charity fraud: Charities as victims: …that are constantly seeking new fund-raising opportunities may themselves fall victim to fraudsters. Many charities depend for fund-raising on third-party fund-raisers, usually for-profit businesses, which opens the door to additional possibilities for fraud. Charities may be victimized by fund-raisers that refuse to deliver the donations raised or that only pass…

accounting: The statement of cash flows: Companies also prepare a third financial statement, the statement of cash flows. Cash flows result from three major aspects of the business: (1) operating activities, (2) investing activities, and (3) financing activities. These three categories are illustrated in Table 3.

human eye: General description: Called the fundus oculi, it is characterized by the large blood vessels that supply blood to the retina; these are especially distinct as they cross over the pallid optic disk, or papilla, the region where the optic nerve fibres leave the globe.

Fundy National Park, national park in New Brunswick, Canada, on the Atlantic coast overlooking the Bay of Fundy, noted for its unusually high and fast-running tides. The park was established in 1948 and includes 8 miles (13 km) of the rugged coast, covers 80 square miles (206 square km), and

Bay of Fundy, inlet of the Atlantic Ocean between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick (north and west) and Nova Scotia (south and east). It extends 94 miles (151 km) inland, is 32 miles (52 km) wide at its entrance, and is noted for its fast-running tides, which may produce rises as great as 70

Funen, third largest island, after Zealand (Sjælland) and Vendsyssel-Thy, in Denmark. It lies between southern Jutland and Zealand and is bounded by the Little Belt (strait) to the west and the Great Belt to the east. Both straits are crossed by rail and road connections, including the Great Belt

Arcade Fire: …Records, which released the full-length Funeral in 2004. Inspired by a spate of deaths in band members’ families, the album’s lyrics explored themes of mortality and mourning, yet the group’s energetic performance, lush instrumentation, and romantic sense of melody yielded unlikely anthems such as “Wake Up” and “Rebellion (Lies).” Upon…

7 Unique Burial Rituals Across the World: Let’s look at seven distinct burial rituals.

Elton John: Superstardom and showmanship: …Tumbleweed Connection (1971) and “Funeral for a Friend/Love Lies Bleeding” on Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1973). Other notable songs from this period include “Rocket Man” on Honky Château (1972) and “Don’t Let the Sun Go Down on Me” on Caribou (1974).

Len Deighton: In Funeral in Berlin (1964), The Billion Dollar Brain (1966), and An Expensive Place to Die (1967), he continued his blend of espionage and suspense. Like The Ipcress File, these novels centre on an unnamed hero and show Deighton’s craftsmanship, crisp prose style, and mastery of…

Michael Caine: …films of the 1960s included Funeral in Berlin (1966), Gambit (1966), The Wrong Box (1966), Hurry Sundown (1967), and The Italian Job (1969).

Witold Lutosławski: Lutosławski spoke of his Funeral Music for string orchestra (1958) as marking a turning point in his style; a 12-tone work, it is dedicated to the memory of the Hungarian composer Béla Bartók. This he followed with an experimental piece in which he first used aleatory operations in combination…

Sassetta: …scenes from the life of St. Francis on the reverse side. The St. Francis scenes mark the peak of Sassetta’s career as a narrative artist and are exemplary of his late style, with their sophisticated colour sense and their subtle, rhythmic compositions. Sassetta never completely abandoned his interest in Florentine…

Carlo Carrà: Carrà’s most famous painting, The Funeral of the Anarchist Galli (1911), embodies Futurist ideals with its portrayal of dynamic action, power, and violence.

cremation: History: …and marble slabs on which pyres are erected. The remains are then deposited in the Ganges River. In some Asiatic countries cremation is available to only a favoured few: in Tibet it is usually reserved for the high lamas; in Laos it is for those who die “fortunately” (i.e., of…

Hector Berlioz: Mature career of Hector Berlioz: …Symphonie funèbre et triomphale (Funeral Symphony) for military band, chorus, and strings, commissioned for the 10th anniversary (1840) of the July Revolution of 1830—was intended as a partial solace for the defeat of Benvenuto Cellini. A few years before, Berlioz’s literary gifts had won him the post of music…

Christopher Walken: Film and television work: …appeared in the crime adventure The Funeral (1996) and played a Hessian horseman in Burton’s Sleepy Hollow (1999). In 2001 Walken won new fans with a remarkable dancing sequence in the video—directed by Spike Jonze—for British hip-hop DJ Fatboy Slim’s song “Weapon of Choice.” Walken was nominated for an Oscar…

Sir Richard Steele: Early life and works.: …Steele wrote his first comedy, The Funeral. Performed at Drury Lane “with more than expected success,” this play made his reputation and helped to bring him to the notice of King William and the Whig leaders. Late in 1703 he followed this with his only stage failure, The Lying Lover,…

catafalque: …ornate, often theatrical, usually movable funereal structure mounted on a stage to support a coffin for a lying-in-state. It is used for royalty and personages of distinction and is normally set up in a historic public hall, such as Westminster Hall, London, and the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. The…