Carl Menger: …disprove the Aristotelian view that exchange involves a transaction of equal value for equal value. In exchange, Menger pointed out, people will give up what they value less in return for what they value more, which is why both sides can gain from an exchange. That led him to the…

bill of exchange, short-term negotiable financial instrument consisting of an order in writing addressed by one person (the seller of goods) to another (the buyer) requiring the latter to pay on demand (a sight draft) or at a fixed or determinable future time (a time draft) a certain sum of money

monetarism: …the monetarist theory is the equation of exchange, which is expressed as MV = PQ. Here M is the supply of money, and V is the velocity of turnover of money (i.e., the number of times per year that the average dollar in the money supply is spent for goods…

international payment and exchange: exchange, respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt, for capital investment, or for other…

money: …that sustains money as a medium of exchange breaks down, people will then seek substitutes—like the cigarettes and cognac that for a time served as the medium of exchange in Germany after World War II. New money may substitute for old under less extreme conditions. In many countries with a…

gift exchange, the transfer of goods or services that, although regarded as voluntary by the people involved, is part of the expected social behaviour. Gift exchange may be distinguished from other types of exchange in several respects: the first offering is made in a generous manner and there is

JPEG: …exchangeable image file format (EXIF) information that stores details about when a picture was taken and even settings such as exposure and shutter speed. JPEG files typically end in the extension “.jpeg” or “.jpg.”

Exchequer, in British history, the government department that was responsible for receiving and dispersing the public revenue. The word derives from the Latin scaccarium, “chessboard,” in reference to the checkered cloth on which the reckoning of revenues took place. The Exchequer was constituted

government budget: The United Kingdom: …submitted to Parliament by the chancellor of the Exchequer, who is responsible for its preparation. The emphasis of the chancellor’s budget speech is on taxation and the state of the economy, rather than on the detail of expenditures; public discussion is devoted mainly to the chancellor’s tax proposals. The estimates…

Court of Common Pleas: …of King’s Bench and the Court of Exchequer for common-law business. The result was an accumulation of many complicated and overlapping jurisdictional rules. By the 19th century the multiple form of writs and competing jurisdictions had become unbearable, and the Judicature Act of 1873 brought about a replacement of the…

Aziz Sancar: …of an enzyme known as uvrABC nuclease (excision nuclease, or excinuclease) in E. coli. The enzyme specifically targeted DNA that had been damaged by UV or chemical exposure, cutting the affected DNA strand at each end of the damaged region and thereby enabling the removal of the damaged nucleotides.

sales tax: Sales and excise taxes in various countries: Excise tax revenue in most countries comes primarily from excises on automobiles, motor fuels, tobacco, and alcoholic beverages. Many other special excises are in use, such as taxes on coffee, sugar, salt, vinegar, matches, and amusements. Historically, communist countries derived…

female genital cutting: The procedure: Excision. Type 2 FGC involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora. It can also include the removal of the labia majora. Infibulation (also called Pharoanic circumcision). The vaginal opening is reduced by removing all or parts of the external…

Aziz Sancar: …of an enzyme known as uvrABC nuclease (excision nuclease, or excinuclease) in E. coli. The enzyme specifically targeted DNA that had been damaged by UV or chemical exposure, cutting the affected DNA strand at each end of the damaged region and thereby enabling the removal of the damaged nucleotides.

nucleic acid: Repair: …DNA lesions is by an excision repair pathway. Enzymes recognize damage within DNA, probably by detecting an altered conformation of DNA, and then nick the strand on either side of the lesion, allowing a small single-stranded DNA to be excised. DNA polymerase and DNA ligase then repair the single-stranded gap.…

cancer: Biopsy: In excisional biopsy the entire tumor is removed. This procedure is carried out when the mass is small enough to be removed completely without adverse consequences. Incisional biopsies, which remove only a piece of a tumor, are done if the mass is large. Biopsies obtained with…

nucleic acid: Site-specific recombination: A third protein, called excisionase, recognizes the hybrid sites formed on integration and, in conjunction with integrase, catalyzes an excision process whereby the λ chromosome is removed from the bacterial chromosome.

Warren Zevon: …That album was followed by Excitable Boy (1978), which featured the rollicking “Werewolves of London”—Zevon’s only major hit—as well as the geopolitically inspired songs “Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner” and “Lawyers, Guns and Money.”

excitation, in physics, the addition of a discrete amount of energy (called excitation energy) to a system—such as an atomic nucleus, an atom, or a molecule—that results in its alteration, ordinarily from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state). In

nervous system: Stimulus-response coordination: …of the cell fluid called irritability. In simple organisms, such as algae, protozoans, and fungi, a response in which the organism moves toward or away from the stimulus is called taxis. In larger and more complicated organisms—those in which response involves the synchronization and integration of events in different parts…

excitation: …discrete amount of energy (called excitation energy) to a system—such as an atomic nucleus, an atom, or a molecule—that results in its alteration, ordinarily from the condition of lowest energy (ground state) to one of higher energy (excited state).

energy level: … higher energy levels are called excited states. See also Franck-Hertz experiment.

nervous system: Amino acids: Of the excitatory amino acid receptors, the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor has been thoroughly characterized. Patch-clamp studies show that this receptor is influenced by the presence of magnesium ions (Mg2+). In the absence of Mg2+, activated NMDA receptors open nonspecific cationic channels with no variation when the…

nervous system: Postsynaptic potential: …generated, it is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). Other neurotransmitters stimulate a net efflux of positive charge (usually in the form of K+ diffusing out of the cell), leaving the inside of the membrane more negative. Because this hyperpolarization draws the membrane potential farther from the threshold, making it…

energy level: … higher energy levels are called excited states. See also Franck-Hertz experiment.

sexual intercourse: In the excitement stage, the body prepares for sexual activity by tensing muscles and increasing heart rate. In the male, blood flows into the penis, causing it to become erect; in the female, the vaginal walls become moist, the inner part of the vagina becomes wider, and…

sexual intercourse: In the excitement stage, the body prepares for sexual activity by tensing muscles and increasing heart rate. In the male, blood flows into the penis, causing it to become erect; in the female, the vaginal walls become moist, the inner part of the vagina becomes wider, and…

electric generator: Field excitation: …another generator, known as an exciter, mounted on the same shaft. This may be a direct-current generator. In most modern installations, a synchronous generator is used as the exciter. For this purpose, the field windings of the exciter are placed on its stator and the phase windings on its rotor.…

exciton, the combination of an electron and a positive hole (an empty electron state in a valence band), which is free to move through a nonmetallic crystal as a unit. Because the electron and the positive hole have equal but opposite electrical charges, the exciton as a whole has no net electrical

radiation: Excitation states: …important of them are the exciton state, the polaron state, the charge-transfer (or charge-separated) state, and the plasmon state.

punctuation: Punctuation in Greek and Latin to 1600: …their modern names, and the exclamation mark, quotation marks, and the dash had been added to the system.

What’s the Difference Between Enclaves and Exclaves?: …enclave can also be an exclave if it’s part of a larger territory that it’s separated from.

private good: …both excludable and rivalrous, where excludability means that producers can prevent some people from consuming the good or service based on their ability or willingness to pay and rivalrous indicates that one person’s consumption of a product reduces the amount available for consumption by another. In practice, private goods exist…

realism: Metaphysical realism and antirealism: …logical principles such as the law of excluded middle (for every proposition p, either p or its negation, not-p, is true, there being no “middle” true proposition between them) can no longer be justified if a strongly realist conception of truth is replaced by an antirealist one which restricts what…

insurance: Excluded perils: Among the excluded perils (or exclusions) of homeowner’s policies are the following: loss due to freezing when the dwelling is vacant or unoccupied, unless stated precautions are taken; loss from weight of ice or snow to property such as fences, swimming pools, docks,…

realism: Metaphysical realism and antirealism: …logical principles such as the law of excluded middle (for every proposition p, either p or its negation, not-p, is true, there being no “middle” true proposition between them) can no longer be justified if a strongly realist conception of truth is replaced by an antirealist one which restricts what…

insurance: Excluded perils: Among the excluded perils (or exclusions) of homeowner’s policies are the following: loss due to freezing when the dwelling is vacant or unoccupied, unless stated precautions are taken; loss from weight of ice or snow to property such as fences, swimming pools, docks,…

plant disease: Exclusion and avoidance: The principle of exclusion and avoidance is to keep the pathogen away from the growing host plant. This practice commonly excludes pathogens by disinfection of plants, seeds, or other parts, using chemicals or heat. Inspection and certification of seed and other planting stock help ensure freedom…

United Kingdom: The exclusion crisis and the Tory reaction: …when the Commons passed the Exclusion Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament and called new elections. These did not change the mood of the country, for in the second Exclusion Parliament (1679) the Commons also voted to bypass the duke of York in favour of his daughter Mary and William of Orange,…

gel chromatography, in analytical chemistry, technique for separating chemical substances by exploiting the differences in the rates at which they pass through a bed of a porous, semisolid substance. The method is especially useful for separating enzymes, proteins, peptides, and amino acids from

United Kingdom: The exclusion crisis and the Tory reaction: First he co-opted the leading exclusionists, including the earl of Shaftesbury, the earl of Halifax, and the earl of Essex, into his government, and then he offered a plan for safeguarding the church during his brother’s reign. But when the Commons passed the Exclusion Bill, Charles dissolved Parliament and called…

Pauli exclusion principle, assertion that no two electrons in an atom can be at the same time in the same state or configuration, proposed (1925) by the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to account for the observed patterns of light emission from atoms. The exclusion principle subsequently has been

combinatorics: The principle of inclusion and exclusion: derangements: This is the principle of inclusion and exclusion expressed by Sylvester.

papal conclave: Codifying the rules of the conclave: …church had tacitly accepted a right of veto, or exclusion, in papal elections by the Catholic kings of Europe. Typically, a cardinal who was charged with the mission by his home government would inform the conclave of the inadmissibility of certain papal candidates. The royal right of exclusion prevented the…

hostile architecture, urban design strategy that uses elements of the built environment to guide or restrict certain behaviors in public spaces, such as sleeping, skateboarding, using illicit substances, urinating in public, and loitering. Such design elements tend to target not only skateboarders

exclusionary rule, in U.S. law, the principle that evidence seized by police in violation of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution may not be used against a criminal defendant at trial. The Fourth Amendment guarantees freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures—that is, those made

Exclusive, in Australian history, member of the sociopolitical faction of free settlers, officials, and military officers of the convict colony of New South Wales, formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Exclusives sought to exclude Emancipists (former convicts) from full civil

Exclusive, in Australian history, member of the sociopolitical faction of free settlers, officials, and military officers of the convict colony of New South Wales, formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Exclusives sought to exclude Emancipists (former convicts) from full civil

Chris Brown: Exclusive: …he released his second album, Exclusive, which was lauded for showcasing Brown’s growing maturity while still appealing to his target teen demographic. Exclusive featured collaborations with such big names as Lil Wayne and Kanye West, and its single “Kiss Kiss,” featuring singer-rapper T-Pain, reached the top of the Billboard Hot…

Alexander Hall: Early work: …explored the newspaper business in Exclusive (1937), a drama starring Fred MacMurray, Charles Ruggles, and Frances Farmer.

Abu Dhabi: By the terms of the Exclusive Agreement of 1892, its foreign affairs were placed under British control. During the long rule of Sheikh Zayed ibn Khalifa (1855–1908), Abu Dhabi was the premier power of the Trucial Coast, but in the early 20th century it was outpaced by Sharjah and Dubai.…

Plymouth Brethren: …churches and were known as Exclusive Brethren; the others, called Open Brethren, maintained a congregational form of church government and less rigorous standards for membership. Exclusive Brethren have suffered further divisions.

disjunction: For clarity, exclusive disjunction (either x or y, but not both), symbolized x ⊻ y, must be distinguished from inclusive disjunction (either x or y, or both x and y), symbolized x ∨ y. See also implication.

exclusive economic zone (EEZ), as defined under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), an area of the ocean extending up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) immediately offshore from a country’s land coast in which that country retains exclusive rights to the exploration and

monotheism: Exclusive monotheism: For exclusive monotheism only one god exists; other gods either simply do not exist at all or, at most, are false gods or demons—i.e., beings that are acknowledged to exist but that cannot be compared in power or any other way with the…

Christianity: Contemporary views: According to exclusivism, there is salvation only for Christians. This theology underlay much of the history outlined above, expressed both in the Roman Catholic dogma extra ecclesiam nulla salus (“outside the church no salvation”) and in the assumption of the 18th- and 19th-century Protestant missionary movements. The…

excommunication, form of ecclesiastical censure by which a person is excluded from the communion of believers, the rites or sacraments of a church, and the rights of church membership but not necessarily from membership in the church as such. Some method of exclusion belongs to the administration

dermatillomania, psychiatric disorder in which an individual compulsively picks at their skin to the extent that it leads to tissue damage. Left untreated, the disorder can result in ulcerations, infections, and extensive scarring. Estimates suggest that roughly 2 to 5 percent of adolescents and

feces, solid bodily waste discharged from the large intestine through the anus during defecation. Feces are normally removed from the body one or two times a day. About 100 to 250 grams (3 to 8 ounces) of feces are excreted by a human adult daily. Normally, feces are made up of 75 percent water and

excretion, the process by which animals rid themselves of waste products and of the nitrogenous by-products of metabolism. Through excretion organisms control osmotic pressure—the balance between inorganic ions and water—and maintain acid-base balance. The process thus promotes homeostasis, the

renal system: Quantitative tests: …is not the same as excretion rate. The clearance of inulin and some other compounds is not altered by raising its plasma concentration, because the amount of urine completely cleared of the agent remains the same. But the excretion rate equals total quantity excreted per millilitre of filtrate per minute,…

tree: The anatomy and organization of wood: …with smaller lateral branches (excurrent branching). Many angiosperms show for some part of their development a well-defined central axis, which then divides continually to form a crown of branches of similar dimensions (deliquescent branching). This can be found in many oaks, the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), the silver linden…

Hermann Sudermann: …girl, and Litauische Geschichten (1917; The Excursion to Tilsit), a collection of stories dealing with the simple villagers of his native region, are notable. Das Bilderbuch meiner Jugend (1922; The Book of My Youth) is a vivid account of his early years in East Prussia.

William Wordsworth: The Recluse and The Prelude: …was published in 1814 as The Excursion and consisted of nine long philosophical monologues spoken by pastoral characters. The first monologue (Book I) contains a version of one of Wordsworth’s greatest poems, “The Ruined Cottage,” composed in superb blank verse in 1797. This bleak narrative records the slow, pitiful decline…

Red Skelton: …Fuller Brush Man (1948), and Excuse My Dust (1951).

River Exe, river in southwest England, rising from its source on Exmoor in Somerset, only 5 mi (8 km) from the Bristol Channel, and flowing southward 60 mi across Devon to its estuary beginning at Exeter and into the English Channel at Exmouth. The Exe is an important river for angling (salmon and

Exekias was a Greek potter and painter who, with the Amasis Painter, is considered the finest and most original of black-figure masters of the mid-6th century bc and is one of the major figures in the history of the art. He signed 13 vases (2 as painter and potter and 11 as potter). The commonest

Palestine: Middle Bronze Age: …region, and the 20th–19th-century “Execration Texts,” inscriptions of Egypt’s enemies’ names on pottery, which was ceremonially broken to invoke a curse.) The culture introduced at this stage was essentially the same as the culture found by the Israelites who moved into Palestine in the 14th and 13th centuries bce.

license: …may be called an “executed parol license,” though it is more accurately called a servitude created by estoppel, a term that better describes both the process used to create the right and the resulting right itself. An executed parol license creates a right that runs with the land indefinitely,…

capital punishment, execution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense. Capital punishment should be distinguished from extrajudicial executions carried out without due process of law. The term death penalty is sometimes used interchangeably with

Chinese literature: Literature in Taiwan after 1949: …of stories Yin hsien-chang (1976; The Execution of Mayor Yin) by Ch’en Jo-hsi, are given broad exposure.

Tommy Lee Jones: …of Norman Mailer’s biographical novel The Executioner’s Song. He was also acclaimed for his convincing depiction of a former Texas Ranger in the much-watched television miniseries Lonesome Dove (1989), adapted from Larry McMurtry’s western novel of the same name. Jones then played Clay Shaw, a Louisiana businessman suspected of conspiring…

American literature: New fictional modes: …Pulitzer Prize-winning “true life novel” The Executioner’s Song (1979). When he returned to fiction, his most effective work was Harlot’s Ghost (1991), about the Central Intelligence Agency. His final novels took Jesus Christ (The Gospel According to the Son [1997]) and Adolf Hitler (The Castle in the Forest [2007]) as…

Bernard Hopkins is an American boxer who dominated the middleweight division in the early 2000s with a combination of speed and precision that earned him the nickname “The Executioner.” (Read Gene Tunney’s 1929 Britannica essay on boxing.) Hopkins was involved in street crime as a teenager, and at

executive, In politics, a person or persons constituting the branch of government charged with executing or carrying out the laws and appointing officials, formulating and instituting foreign policy, and providing diplomatic representation. In the U.S., a system of checks and balances keeps the

business organization: Executive management: The markets that corporations serve reflect the great variety of humanity and human wants; accordingly, firms that serve different markets exhibit great differences in technology, structure, beliefs, and practice. Because the essence of competition and innovation lies in differentiation and change, corporations are…

executive order, principal mode of administrative action on the part of the president of the United States. The executive order came into use before 1850, but the current numbering system goes back only to the administration of Pres. Abraham Lincoln. One of the earliest executive orders still in

executive agreement, an agreement between the United States and a foreign government that is less formal than a treaty and is not subject to the constitutional requirement for ratification by two-thirds of the U.S. Senate. The Constitution of the United States does not specifically give a president

memory: Executive attention: In its role of managing information in short-term memory, executive attention is highly effective in blocking potentially distracting information from the focus of attention. This is one way in which the brain is able to keep information active and in focus. Yet there…

executive, In politics, a person or persons constituting the branch of government charged with executing or carrying out the laws and appointing officials, formulating and instituting foreign policy, and providing diplomatic representation. In the U.S., a system of checks and balances keeps the

Philippines: World War II: An Executive Commission made up of more than 30 members of the old Filipino political elite had been cooperating with Japanese military authorities in Manila since January.

Adolf Fischhof: …1848) elected president of the Executive Committee of Security, the ruling force in the Austrian capital through the summer of 1848. A leading member of the short-lived parliaments at Vienna and Kremsier (now Kroměříž, Czech Republic), he played a major role in the drafting of the ill-fated Kremsier constitution. With…

Victoria: Constitutional framework: …ministers become members of the Executive Council, which advises the governor, who is regarded as the trustee of the constitution and stands above party politics. The governor summons and prorogues Parliament, outlines the government’s legislative program at the beginning of each session, and gives assent to bills that do not…

William Barr: Attorney general for the Trump administration: …a “facially-lawful” exercise of “Executive discretion” and that obstruction would not apply unless Trump had already been found guilty of an underlying crime. Such arguments were advanced by many Trump supporters as well as by advocates of increased presidential authority.

construction: Use of reinforced concrete: …walls to build the 39-story Executive House in Chicago to a height of 111 meters (371 feet).

information system: Executive information systems: Executive information systems make a variety of critical information readily available in a highly summarized and convenient form, typically via a graphical digital dashboard. Senior managers characteristically employ many informal sources of information, however, so that formal, computerized information systems are only…

White House, the official office and residence of the president of the United States at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue N.W. in Washington, D.C. It is perhaps the most famous and easily recognizable house in the world, serving as both the home and workplace of the president and the headquarters of the

executive order, principal mode of administrative action on the part of the president of the United States. The executive order came into use before 1850, but the current numbering system goes back only to the administration of Pres. Abraham Lincoln. One of the earliest executive orders still in

Lavender Scare: The Wherry-Hill and Hoey committees: Dwight Eisenhower signed Executive Order 10450, which officially banned gay men and lesbians, among others, from federal employment. An estimated 5,000 to tens of thousands of gay people lost their jobs, either because they were fired or resigned. Many had difficulty in gaining employment elsewhere and even faced…

executive order: Eisenhower’s Executive Order 10730, which dispatched federal troops to protect the civil rights of the Little Rock Nine during the integration of Little Rock’s Central High School; and Pres. Donald Trump’s Executive Order 14160, which effectively limited birthright citizenship to

Executive Order 11905, executive order issued February 19, 1976, by U.S. President Gerald Ford, which prohibited any member of the U.S. government from engaging or conspiring to engage in any political assassination anywhere in the world. Promulgated in the wake of revelations that the Central

Executive Order 11905: It was successively superseded by Executive Order 12036 (issued by President Jimmy Carter on January 26, 1978) and Executive Order 12333 (issued by President Ronald Reagan on December 4, 1981), both of which affirmed the ban in the same language, which differed only slightly from that of Ford’s order.

Executive Order 11905: …on January 26, 1978) and Executive Order 12333 (issued by President Ronald Reagan on December 4, 1981), both of which affirmed the ban in the same language, which differed only slightly from that of Ford’s order.

executive order: Donald Trump’s Executive Order 14160, which effectively limited birthright citizenship to persons whose parents are either U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents, notwithstanding the Fourteenth Amendment (1868), which established that “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens…

Executive Order 8802, executive order enacted on June 25, 1941, by U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt that helped to eliminate racial discrimination in the U.S. defense industry and was an important step toward ending it in federal government employment practices overall. Even before the Japanese

Executive Order 9066, (February 19, 1942), executive order issued by U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, which granted the secretary of war and his commanders the power “to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which

Executive Order 9066: Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9102 on March 18, 1942, creating the War Relocation Authority, a civilian agency tasked with speeding the process along. A few days later the first wave of “evacuees” arrived at Manzanar War Relocation Center, a collection of tar-paper barracks in the California desert,…

Executive Order 9981, executive order issued on July 26, 1948, by U.S. Pres. Harry S. Truman that abolished racial segregation in the U.S. armed forces. Beginning with the initial skirmishes of the American Revolution, African Americans had played an important role in the armed forces of the United

executive privilege, principle in the United States, derived from common law, that provides immunity from subpoena to executive branch officials in the conduct of their governmental duties. Although the term executive privilege was coined by the administration of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in the

Robert Wise: Films of the 1950s: …films of the decade was Executive Suite (1954), the chronicle of a cutthroat power struggle at a furniture company. It featured a large distinguished cast (including William Holden, Fredric March, Barbara Stanwyck, Walter Pidgeon, June Allyson, and Shelley Winters ) and several subplots, the various strands of which were shrewdly…