Pierre Etchebaster was a French real tennis player who dominated the sport as world champion from 1928 to 1954. Etchebaster started as a player of pelota, the game of his native Basque region, before taking up real tennis, the ancestor of lawn tennis known in France as jeu de paume. By 1926 he was

etched glass, type of glassware whose decorative design has been cut into the surface by the corrosive action of an acid. An etched-glass surface may be either rough and frosted or satiny smooth and translucent, depending largely on the composition of the glass and the amount of time the glass is

French literature: Feminist writers: Josyane and the Welfare) and Claire Etcherelli’s Élise; ou, la vraie vie (1967; Elise; or, The Real Life). But an equally significant impact was made by writers looking for ways of transforming masculine language for women-generated versions of feminine subjectivity. The texts of James Joyce and Samuel Beckett lie behind…

integrated circuit: Etching: A layer can be removed, in entirety or in part, either by etching away the material with strong chemicals or by reactive ion etching (RIE). RIE is like sputtering in the argon chamber, but the polarity is reversed and different gas mixtures are used.…

etching, a method of making prints from a metal plate, usually copper, into which the design has been incised by acid. The copperplate is first coated with an acid-resistant substance, called the etching ground, through which the design is drawn with a sharp tool. The ground is usually a compound

printmaking: Printing by intaglio processes: …in intaglio printing is the etching press, a simple machine whose basic principle has not changed for centuries. Motorization and the use of pressure gauges are the only major improvements. The press consists of a solid steel plate, called the bed, that is driven between two rollers; a screw mechanism…

planation surface: Etchplain: Where deep weathering occurs on a landscape, a dichotomy is set up between the thick regolith of weak, weathered rock and the underlying zone of intact rock. If subsequent erosion removes the weathered regolith, then a new planation surface develops through exposure of the…

Mohammed Dib: Dib’s later novels, apart from Un Été africain (1959; “An African Summer”), which retains the realistic mode of expression in his description of a people in revolt, are marked by the use of symbol, myth, allegory, and fantasy to portray the French colonial repression of the Algerian people, the search…

Hungarian literature: The period of the Enlightenment: The novel Etelka (1788), by Dugonics, a sentimental love story in a historical setting, was the first Hungarian best seller. Both Gvadányi and Dugonics used the language of the common people, and this was perhaps their greatest merit. Ádám Pálóczi Horváth left a collection of 450 poems,…

Marduk: …were the Esagila and the Etemenanki, a ziggurat with a shrine of Marduk on the top. In the Esagila the poem Enuma elish was recited every year at the New Year festival. The goddess named most often as the consort of Marduk was Zarpanitu.

Mesopotamian religion: Human origin: …Atrahasis story relates that the eṭemmu (ghost) of the slain god was left in human flesh and thus became part of human beings. It is this originally divine part of humanity, the eṭemmu, that was believed to survive at his death and to give him a shadowy afterlife in the…

Japanese music: Tonal system: A few pieces, such as Etenraku, are found in more than one tonality. Although set in two ritsu tonalities (hyōjō and banshiki), it is obvious from that example that the piece, which is a “crossover” (watashimono), is more than merely transposed.

Antigone: …to reconcile their quarreling brothers—Eteocles, who was defending the city and his crown, and Polyneices, who was attacking Thebes. Both brothers, however, were killed, and their uncle Creon became king. After performing an elaborate funeral service for Eteocles, he forbade the removal of the corpse of Polyneices, condemning it…

1986 West Berlin discotheque bombing: …prosecutors showed that the diplomat, Musbah Eter, worked with Yasser Chraidi, a Palestinian employee of the Libyan embassy in East Berlin, to carry out the attack. The men recruited Ali Chanaa, a German man of Lebanese descent, and his German wife, Verena Chanaa, to carry out the bombing.

Sir Barton: 1919 Triple Crown: …Kelly could beat his archrival, Eternal, who had been the winner in an earlier match race between the two horses. When the time came to travel to Kentucky, it was decided at the last moment to send Sir Barton along as a training mate. Shortly thereafter Ross and Bedwell decided…

Genghis Khan: Legacy of Genghis Khan: …he would reverently worship the Eternal Blue Heaven, the supreme deity of the Mongols. So much is true of his early life. The picture becomes less harmonious as he moves out of his familiar sphere and comes into contact with the strange, settled world beyond the steppe. At first he…

Thomas Müntzer: The Peasants’ War of Thomas Müntzer: …organized a group called the Eternal Covenant of God. After another expulsion he went to Nürnberg, where further writings were published. He then went on to Hegau and Klettgau, the area where the Peasants’ War (an abortive revolt in 1524–25 against the nobles over rising taxes, deflation, and other grievances)…

Hungary: War and renewed defeat: …characterized as one of “Eternal Friendship.” On March 26, 1941, that Yugoslav government was overthrown by a pro-Western regime. Hitler prepared to invade Yugoslavia and called on Hungary to help. Caught in an unanticipated situation, Hungary refused to join in the attack but again allowed German troops to cross…

Christianity: Concepts of life after death: …Christian is characterized as “eternal life.” In the Gospels and in the apostolic letters, “eternal” is first of all a temporal designation: in contrast to life of this world, eternal life has a deathless duration. In its essence, however, it is life according to God’s kind of eternity—i.e., perfect,…

John III Sobieski: The siege of Vienna: …Sobieski concluded with them the “Eternal” Peace of 1686 (the Grzymułtowski Peace). In this treaty, Kiev, which had been under temporary Russian rule since 1667, was permanently ceded by Poland. But despite all the failures and disappointments he experienced after 1683, Sobieski was able to deliver southeastern Poland from the…

Justinian I: Foreign policy and wars: …came to terms, and the Treaty of Eternal Peace was ratified in 532. The treaty was on the whole favourable to the Byzantines, who lost no territory and whose suzerainty over the key district of Lazica (Colchis, in Asia Minor) was recognized by Persia. Justinian, however, had to pay the…

Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche’s mature philosophy: The doctrine of eternal recurrence, the basic conception of Thus Spoke Zarathustra, asks the question “How well disposed would a person have to become to himself and to life to crave nothing more fervently than the infinite repetition, without alteration, of each and every moment?” Presumably most people…

Ariana Grande: Return to acting and eternal sunshine: …Grande released the studio album eternal sunshine, which spawned the number-one singles “yes, and?” and “We Can’t Be Friends (Wait for Your Love).” A concept album addressing her divorce from real-estate broker Dalton Gomez (they married in 2021), it drew praise from critics for its introspective lyrics and for Grande’s…

History of film: European cinema: …shared a writing Oscar for Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), his best-known movie, and also directed the comedies Be Kind Rewind (2008) and The Green Hornet (2011). Even as many countries produced substantial numbers of films, the idea of nationality was exemplified more by singular individuals than by…

Pearl S. Buck: The novel, titled The Eternal Wonder, chronicles the peregrinations of a young genius.

Sonic Youth: …Matador for the 2009 release The Eternal. Enlisting Pavement bassist Mark Ibold (b. 1962, Cincinnati, Ohio) for the album and subsequent tour, The Eternal recalled Sonic Youth’s early 1990s rock sound. It proved to be a final statement. In 2011 the 27-year marriage of Gordon and Moore dissolved, which effectively…

Gemma Chan: Parts in the late 2010s and early 2020s: …role, starring as Sersi in Eternals (2021), which was directed by Academy Award winner Chloé Zhao; and play the wife of the head of a seemingly utopian community in Olivia Wilde’s much-anticipated Don’t Worry, Darling (2022). In 2023 she joined the star-studded cast of Extrapolations, a series that takes place…

Jean Amrouche: …Berber lyrics and an essay, “L’Éternel Jugurtha” (1946), that stands as the definitive statement on the Maghribian identity torn by the complexes of acculturation and alienation. Amrouche taught and produced a radio show in which he interviewed writers. In his later years he broadcast appeals for the Algerian cause to…

eternity, timelessness, or the state of that which is held to have neither beginning nor end. Eternity and the related concept of infinity have long been associated with strong emotional overtones, serving to astonish, weary, or confound those who attempt to grasp them. In religious and

Neil Gaiman: 1602, Anansi Boys, and InterWorld: …The Silver Dream (2013) and Eternity’s Wheel (2015), were conceptualized by Gaiman and Reaves and written by Reaves and his daughter Mallory.

etesian wind, remarkably steady southbound drift of the lower atmosphere over the eastern Mediterranean and adjacent lands in summer. From about mid-May to mid-September, it generally dominates the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean seas and the adjacent countries. The name (from Greek etos, “year”) is

If you’ve explored the universe of investment strategies—perhaps for a retirement fund, or with a financial advisor—two fund structures appear time and again: mutual funds and exchange-traded funds (ETFs). When comparing ETFs versus mutual funds, you’ll likely note the similarities: a wide array of

unidentified flying object: Flying saucers and Project Blue Book: … from other worlds, the so-called extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH). Within a year, Project Sign was succeeded by Project Grudge, which in 1952 was itself replaced by the longest-lived of the official inquiries into UFOs, Project Blue Book, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. From 1952 to 1969 Project…

Zürich: History: …by the canton, and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (1855) were founded. The University of Zürich was the first university in Europe to accept female students. Zürich also boasts a long line of Nobel Prize winners among its citizenry, particularly in the fields of physics (Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, 1901;…

antibiotic: Antituberculosis antibiotics: Isoniazid, ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and ethionamide are synthetic chemicals used in treating tuberculosis. Isoniazid, ethionamide, and pyrazinamide are similar in structure to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a coenzyme essential for several physiological processes. Ethambutol prevents the synthesis of mycolic acid, a

Ethan Frome, novella that is perhaps the best-known work by American author Edith Wharton. First published in 1911, Ethan Frome is a departure from Wharton’s other works, which take place among the upper echelons of society, in that it is set in an impoverished New England farming community. The

acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), an aldehyde used as a starting material in the synthesis of 1-butanol (n-butyl alcohol), ethyl acetate, perfumes, flavourings, aniline dyes, plastics, synthetic rubber, and other chemical compounds. It has been manufactured by the hydration of acetylene and by the oxidation

ethane, a colourless, odourless, gaseous hydrocarbon (compound of hydrogen and carbon), belonging to the paraffin series; its chemical formula is C2H6. Ethane is structurally the simplest hydrocarbon that contains a single carbon–carbon bond. The second most important constituent of natural gas, it

ethylene glycol, the simplest member of the glycol family of organic compounds. A glycol is an alcohol with two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbon atoms (a 1,2-diol). The common name ethylene glycol literally means “the glycol derived from ethylene.” Ethylene glycol is a clear, sweet, slightly

oxalic acid, a colourless, crystalline, toxic organic compound belonging to the family of carboxylic acids. Oxalic acid is widely used as an acid rinse in laundries, where it is effective in removing rust and ink stains because it converts most insoluble iron compounds into a soluble complex ion.

ethylene glycol, the simplest member of the glycol family of organic compounds. A glycol is an alcohol with two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbon atoms (a 1,2-diol). The common name ethylene glycol literally means “the glycol derived from ethylene.” Ethylene glycol is a clear, sweet, slightly

acetic acid (CH3COOH), the most important of the carboxylic acids. A dilute (approximately 5 percent by volume) solution of acetic acid produced by fermentation and oxidation of natural carbohydrates is called vinegar; a salt, ester, or acylal of acetic acid is called acetate. Industrially, acetic

ethanol, a member of a class of organic compounds that are given the general name alcohols; its molecular formula is C2H5OH. Ethanol is an important industrial chemical; it is used as a solvent, in the synthesis of other organic chemicals, and as an additive to automotive gasoline (forming a

ethanolamine, the first of three organic compounds that can be derived from ammonia by successively replacing the hydrogen atoms with hydroxyethyl radicals (―CH2CH2OH), the others being diethanolamine and triethanolamine. The three are widely used in industry, principally as absorbents for acidic

Ethel Catherwood was not only a successful athlete at the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam. She also proved to be one of the more interesting personalities of that historic competition. The Amsterdam Games were the first in which women were allowed to compete in the track-and-field events; the era’s

Aethelbald was the king of the Mercians from 716, who became the chief king of a confederation including all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms between the River Humber and the English Channel. His predominance was made possible by the death of the strong king Wihtred of Kent (725) and the abdication of Ine

Aethelflaed was an Anglo-Saxon ruler of Mercia in England and the founder of Gloucester Abbey. The eldest child of King Alfred the Great, she helped her brother Edward the Elder, king of the West Saxons (reigned 899–924), in conquering the Danish armies occupying eastern England. Aethelflaed became

Aethelfrith was the king of Bernicia (from 592/593) and of Deira, which together formed Northumbria. Aethelfrith was the son of Aethelric and grandson of Ida, king of Bernicia, and his reign marks the true beginning of the continuous history of a united Northumbria and, indeed, of England. He

Aetheling, in Anglo-Saxon England, generally any person of noble birth. Use of the term was usually restricted to members of a royal family, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally used after the Norman Conquest to

ancient Greek civilization: Formal relationships: …hears of “voluntary proxenoi” (etheloproxenoi). The antiquity of the basic institution is not in doubt, however much the 5th-century Athenian empire may have exploited and reshaped it for its own political convenience; a 7th-century inscription from the island of Corcyra mentioning a proxenos from Locris is the earliest attestation…

Aethelred I was the king of Wessex and of Kent (865/866–871), son of Aethelwulf of Wessex. By his father’s will he should have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest brother Aethelbald (d. 860). He seems, however, to have stood aside in favour of his brother Aethelberht, king of Kent, to

Ethelred the Unready was the king of the English from 978 to 1013 and from 1014 to 1016. He was an ineffectual ruler who failed to prevent the Danes from overrunning England. The epithet “unready” is derived from unraed, meaning “bad counsel” or “no counsel,” and puns on his name, which means

Saint Aelred of Rievaulx was a writer, historian, and outstanding Cistercian abbot who influenced monasticism in medieval England, Scotland, and France. His feast day is celebrated by the Cistercians on February 3. Of noble birth, Aelred was reared at the court of King David I of Scotland, whose

Ethelred the Unready was the king of the English from 978 to 1013 and from 1014 to 1016. He was an ineffectual ruler who failed to prevent the Danes from overrunning England. The epithet “unready” is derived from unraed, meaning “bad counsel” or “no counsel,” and puns on his name, which means

Guthrum was a leader of a major Danish invasion of Anglo-Saxon England who waged war against the West Saxon king Alfred the Great (reigned 871–899) and later made himself king of East Anglia (reigned 880–890). Guthrum went to England in the great Danish invasion of 865, and in mid-January 878 he

Athelstan was the first West Saxon king to have effective rule over the whole of England. On the death of his father, Edward the Elder, in 924, Athelstan was elected king of Wessex and Mercia, where he had been brought up by his aunt, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians. Crowned king of the whole

Aethelweard was an English chronicler and likely ealderman of the western provinces (probably the whole of Wessex), a descendant of King Alfred’s brother Aethelred. He wrote, in elaborate and peculiar Latin, a chronicle for his continental kinswoman, Matilda, abbess of Essen. In the printed version

Aethelwulf was an Anglo-Saxon king in England, the father of King Alfred the Great. As ruler of the West Saxons from 839 to 856, he allied his kingdom of Wessex with Mercia and thereby withstood invasions by Danish Vikings. The son of the great West Saxon king Egbert (ruled 802–839), Aethelwulf

ethylene (H2C=CH2), the simplest of the organic compounds known as alkenes, which contain carbon-carbon double bonds. It is a colourless, flammable gas having a sweet taste and odour. Natural sources of ethylene include both natural gas and petroleum; it is also a naturally occurring hormone in

darter, any of about 100 species of small, slender freshwater fishes constituting the subfamily Etheostominae of the family Percidae (order Perciformes; sometimes given family standing as the Etheostomidae). All the darters are native to eastern North America. They live near the bottom of clear

darter, any of about 100 species of small, slender freshwater fishes constituting the subfamily Etheostominae of the family Percidae (order Perciformes; sometimes given family standing as the Etheostomidae). All the darters are native to eastern North America. They live near the bottom of clear

ether, any of a class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers are similar in structure to alcohols, and both ethers and alcohols are similar in structure to water. In an alcohol one hydrogen atom of a water molecule is replaced by an alkyl

ether, in physics, a theoretical universal substance believed during the 19th century to act as the medium for transmission of electromagnetic waves (e.g., light and X-rays), much as sound waves are transmitted by elastic media such as air. The ether was assumed to be weightless, transparent,

fat and oil processing: Processes: …especially the various grades of petroleum benzin (commonly known as petroleum ether, commercial hexane, or heptane). In large-scale operations, solvent extraction is a more economical means of recovering oil than is mechanical pressing. In the United States and increasingly in Europe, there are many instances of simple petroleum benzin extraction…

Sir George Etherege was an English diplomat and creator of the Restoration-era comedy of manners. Etherege probably accompanied his father to France in the 1640s. About 1653 his grandfather apprenticed him to an attorney in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire. Etherege’s first comedy, The Comical

cryptocurrency: Indeed, Ethereum, the second largest cryptocurrency after Bitcoin, changed in 2022 from proof of work to proof of stake.

If you’ve ever paid a toll on a highway, then you already know something about Ethereum gas fees. Ethereum gas fees are like paying a “toll” to use the Ethereum blockchain. Highway tollbooths may be operated by one person, but the Ethereum blockchain involves many decentralized operators. Here’s a

Candlemas: …4th century the Western pilgrim Etheria attended its celebration on February 14, 40 days after Epiphany (then celebrated as Christ’s birthday), and wrote of it in the Peregrinatio Etheriae. It soon spread to other Eastern cities, and in 542 Justinian I decreed that its date should be moved back to…

Peregrinatio Etheriae, an anonymous and incomplete account of a western European nun’s travels in the Middle East, written for her colleagues at home, near the end of the 4th century. It gives important information about religious life and the observances of the church year in the localities

Melissa Etheridge is an American musician known for her raspy-voiced rock-and-roll singing. She also was noted for her early openness about her sexual orientation. Etheridge began playing the guitar at age 8 and writing songs by age 11. She honed her skills playing in local bands throughout her

Melissa Etheridge is an American musician known for her raspy-voiced rock-and-roll singing. She also was noted for her early openness about her sexual orientation. Etheridge began playing the guitar at age 8 and writing songs by age 11. She honed her skills playing in local bands throughout her

Marie Tempest was an English actress, known as “the queen of her profession,” who had a 55-year career as a star of light opera and legitimate comedy. Tempest was educated on the European continent but returned to London to study voice with Manuel Garcia, the tutor of Jenny Lind. She debuted in

Ethernet, computer networking technology used in local area networks (LANs). Ethernet was created in 1973 by a team at the Xerox Corporation’s Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC) in California. The team, led by American electrical engineer Robert Metcalfe, sought to create a technology that

theremin, electronic musical instrument invented in 1920 in the Soviet Union by Leon Theremin (also called Lev Termen). It consists of a box with radio tubes producing oscillations at two sound-wave frequencies above the range of hearing; together, they produce a lower audible frequency equal to

Peter Abelard: Final years of Peter Abelard: …also wrote a book called Ethica or Scito te ipsum (“Know Thyself”), a short masterpiece in which he analyzed the notion of sin and reached the drastic conclusion that human actions do not make a man better or worse in the sight of God, for deeds are in themselves neither…

Plutarch: The Moralia of Plutarch: Plutarch’s surviving writings on ethical, religious, physical, political, and literary topics are collectively known as the Moralia, or Ethica, and amount to more than 60 essays cast mainly in the form of dialogues or diatribes. The former vary from a collection of set…

Aristotle: Ethics: In the 19th century the Eudemian Ethics was often suspected of being the work of Aristotle’s pupil Eudemus of Rhodes, but there is no good reason to doubt its authenticity. Interestingly, the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics have three books in common: books V, VI, and VII of the…

Ethics, treatise of rationalist metaphysics by the Dutch Jewish philosopher Benedict de Spinoza. Composed in Latin and published a few months after his death in 1677, the Ethica ordine geometrico demonstrata (Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order) is generally regarded as Spinoza’s masterpiece.

ethics: Aristotle: …most important ethical treatise, the Nicomachean Ethics, he sorts through the virtues as they were popularly understood in his day, specifying in each case what is truly virtuous and what is mistakenly thought to be so. Here he applies an idea that later came to be known as the Golden…

collective behavior: Active crowds: …situation in which a special moral code applies. The crowd merely carries further the justification for a special code of ethics incorporated in the slogan “You have to fight fire with fire!” Second, there is a sense of power in the crowd, with its apparent determination and uniform will, that…

ethical consumerism, form of political activism based on the premise that purchasers in markets consume not only goods but also, implicitly, the process used to produce them. From the point of view of ethical consumerism, consumption is a political act that sanctions the values embodied in a

Ethical Culture, a movement based upon the conviction that moral tenets need not be grounded in religious or philosophical dogma. Ethical culture has sought to promote social welfare through community effort. The movement originated in New York City under the leadership of Felix Adler in 1876.

ethics: Ethical egoism: All of the normative theories considered so far have had a universal focus—i.e., the goods they seek to achieve, the character traits they seek to develop, or the principles they seek to apply pertain equally to everyone. Ethical egoism departs from this consensus,…

monotheism: Exclusive monotheism: In ethical monotheism, individuals choose one god, because that is the god whom they need and whom they can adore, and that god becomes for them the one and only god. In intellectual monotheism, the one god is nothing but the logical result of questions concerning…

Ethical Culture, a movement based upon the conviction that moral tenets need not be grounded in religious or philosophical dogma. Ethical culture has sought to promote social welfare through community effort. The movement originated in New York City under the leadership of Felix Adler in 1876.

ethical naturalism, in ethics, the view that moral terms, concepts, or properties are ultimately definable in terms of facts about the natural world, including facts about human beings, human nature, and human societies. Ethical naturalism contrasts with ethical nonnaturalism, which denies that

Ethical Policy, in Indonesian history, a program introduced by the Dutch in the East Indies at the turn of the 20th century aimed at promoting the welfare of the indigenous Indonesians (Javanese). Toward the end of the 19th century, leaders of the ethical movement argued that the Netherlands had

rationalism: Ethical rationalism: The views of Kant were presented above as typical of this position (see above Types and expressions of rationalism). But few moralists have held to ethical rationalism in this simple and sweeping form. Many have held, however, that the main rules of conduct…

Jacques Rancière: …distinguishes three artistic regimes: the ethical, the representational, and the aesthetic. Under the “ethical regime of images,” which he associates with the ideal state of Plato, art strictly speaking does not exist, and visual or literary images, understood as copies of things that are real or true, are produced only…

ethical relativism, the doctrine that there are no absolute truths in ethics and that what is morally right or wrong varies from person to person or from society to society. (Read Peter Singer’s Britannica entry on ethics.) Herodotus, the Greek historian of the 5th century bc, advanced this view

classification of religions: Morphological: …by a high degree of ethical awareness. Tiele agreed strongly with Whitney in distinguishing between nature and ethical religions. Ethical religion, in Tiele’s views, develops out of nature religion,

institutional review board (IRB), in the United States, ethics committee that reviews proposed and ongoing research involving human subjects. The institutional review board (IRB) exists to protect the rights and safety of human subjects who participate in research studies. The need for an IRB

free will and moral responsibility: Modern compatibilism: In his Ethical Studies (1876), Mill’s countryman F.H. Bradley (1846–1924) argued that neither compatibilism nor libertarianism comes close to justifying what he called the “vulgar notion” of moral responsibility. Determinism does not allow for free will because it implies that humans are never the ultimate originators of…

Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Ethical and religious thought of Dietrich Bonhoeffer: …were published posthumously (Ethik, 1949; Ethics). Abjuring all “thinking in terms of two spheres”—i.e., any dualistic separation of the church and the world, nature and grace, the sacred and the profane—he called for a unitive concrete ethic founded on Christology (doctrines about the person and work of Christ), an ethic…

ethics, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles. (Read Britannica’s biography of this author, Peter Singer.) How should we live? Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge,

ethics: Varieties of consequentialism: …Principia Ethica and also in Ethics (1912), Moore argued that the consequences of actions are decisive for their morality, but he did not accept the classical utilitarian view that pleasure and pain are the only consequences that matter. Moore asked his readers to picture a world filled with all possible…

Ethics, treatise of rationalist metaphysics by the Dutch Jewish philosopher Benedict de Spinoza. Composed in Latin and published a few months after his death in 1677, the Ethica ordine geometrico demonstrata (Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order) is generally regarded as Spinoza’s masterpiece.

ethics: Emotivism: …philosopher Charles Stevenson (1908–79) in Ethics and Language (1945). As the titles of the books of this period suggest, moral philosophers (and philosophers in other fields as well) were now paying more attention to language and to the different ways in which it could be used. Stevenson distinguished the facts…

Lucien Lévy-Bruhl: …la science des moeurs (1903; Ethics and Moral Science), reflected the positivism of Auguste Comte. Contending that theoretical moralities cannot prevail, this book laid the groundwork for a pluralistic, relativistic sociology. Much of his subsequent attention was devoted to the mentality of people in so-called primitive societies, which he first…

Paris: The Institute of France: …joined in 1795; and the Academy of Ethics and Political Science, created by the National Convention (a governing body during the French Revolution) in 1795 to ponder questions of philosophy, economics, politics, law, and history.