meteor and meteoroid: Directing meteoroids to Earth: …the asteroidal fragment to become chaotic, and its perihelion (the point of its orbit nearest the Sun) becomes shifted inside Earth’s orbit over a period of about one million years. Numerical simulations on computers support the idea that the 3:1 resonance is one of the principal mechanisms that inject asteroidal…

Mars: Character of the surface: …channels, areas of collapse called chaotic terrain, and an enigmatic mix of valleys and ridges known as fretted terrain. Straddling the boundary in the western hemisphere is the Tharsis rise, a vast volcanic pile 4,000 km (2,500 miles) across and 8 km (5 miles) above the reference level at its…

celestial mechanics: Chaotic orbits: …said to lie in a chaotic zone. If the chaotic zone is bounded, in the sense that only limited ranges of initial values of the variables describing the motion lead to chaotic behaviour, the uncertainty in the state of the system in the future is limited by the extent of…

Chefchaouene, town, northern Morocco, situated in the Rif mountain range. Founded as a holy city in 1471 by the warrior Abū Youma and later moved by Sīdī ʿAlī ibn Rashīd to its present site at the base of Mount El-Chaouene, it became a refuge for Moors expelled from Spain. A site long closed to

Shawiya, Berber ethnic and linguistic group of the Aurès Plateau region of the Atlas Mountains of northeastern Algeria. The Shawiya speak one of four major Algerian Amazigh languages. The Shawiya practice cereal agriculture in the uplands and pastoral nomadism and horticulture in the oases along

Chaozhou, city, eastern Guangdong sheng (province), China. It is located at the head of the delta of the Han River, some 25 miles (40 km) north of Shantou (Swatow). Chaozhou—having good communications with northern Guangdong, Fujian, and Jiangxi provinces via the Han River system—has been an

Asian tree mouse: cinereus) and the Chapa blind tree mouse (T. chapensis). They are probably nocturnal and arboreal, inhabiting mountain forests of southern China and northern Vietnam, respectively. Aside from their physical traits, little is known of these rodents. They resemble the Malabar mouse in body form, but their fur is…

Chapayevsk, city, Samara oblast (province), western Russia, on the Chapayevka River, a tributary of the Volga. Formerly a centre of the defense industry specializing in explosives, it now concentrates on nitrogen production and ammonia synthesis. A college of technology is located in the city. Pop.

Lake Chapala, lake, west-central Mexico. It lies on the Mexican Plateau at 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) above sea level in the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. Chapala is Mexico’s largest lake, measuring approximately 48 miles (77 km) east-west by 10 miles (16 km) north-south and covering an area of

chaparral, scrubland plant communities composed of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, bushes, and small trees usually less than 2.5 metres (about 8 feet) tall—the characteristic vegetation of coastal and inland mountain areas of southwestern North America. Chaparral is largely found in regions of

roadrunner, either of two species of terrestrial cuckoos, especially Geococcyx californianus, of the deserts of Mexico and the southwestern United States. It is about 56 cm (22 inches) long, with streaked olive-brown and white plumage, a short shaggy crest, bare blue and red skin behind the eyes,

mallow: Chaparral mallows (Malacothamnus species), a group of shrubs and small trees, are native to California and Baja California. The Carolina mallow (Modiola caroliniana) is a weedy, creeping wild flower of the southern United States.

chapati, fried flatbread of Indian origin, often served with vegetables and stew, commonly considered a variation of roti. The word chapati is derived from the Sanskrit word carpatī, meaning “thin cake,” which is in turn derived from the word carpata or “flat.” This refers to the traditional method

chapati: …what had started the so-called chapati movement, but the British interpreted it as an act of defiance by Indian villagers against British governance, an interpretation shaped by the fact that few officers understood or spoke Indian languages. Conversely, many Indians thought the movement to be a British operation, with rumors…

Alphonse Daudet: Life: …fruits of this visit was Chapatin le tueur de lions (1863; “Chapatin the Killer of Lions”), whose lion-hunter hero can be seen as the first sketch of the author’s future Tartarin. Daudet’s first play, La Dernière Idole (“The Last Idol”), made a great impact when it was produced at the…

chapati, fried flatbread of Indian origin, often served with vegetables and stew, commonly considered a variation of roti. The word chapati is derived from the Sanskrit word carpatī, meaning “thin cake,” which is in turn derived from the word carpata or “flat.” This refers to the traditional method

Sergey Dmitriyevich Vasilyev: …directed their most important picture, Chapayev, a sweeping Civil War tale of a Bolshevik guerrilla leader that influenced the “big films” that followed.

Chapayevsk, city, Samara oblast (province), western Russia, on the Chapayevka River, a tributary of the Volga. Formerly a centre of the defense industry specializing in explosives, it now concentrates on nitrogen production and ammonia synthesis. A college of technology is located in the city. Pop.

chapbook, small, inexpensive stitched tract formerly sold by itinerant dealers, or chapmen, in western Europe and in North America. Most chapbooks were 5 12 by 4 14 inches (14 by 11 cm) in size and were made up of four pages (or multiples of four), illustrated with woodcuts. They contained tales of

CHAPEA, series of analog missions conducted by NASA that are intended to simulate human habitation on the surface of Mars. The missions, the first of which began on June 25, 2023, are meant to simulate yearlong stays on the red planet in preparation for future missions there. Subsequent missions

heraldry: Crowns and coronets: Another relic is the chapeau, or cap of maintenance, a cap with ermine lining that was once worn on the helmet before the development of mantling and that is sometimes used instead of the wreath to support the crest. In Scotland the chapeau indicates the rank of a feudal…

jingling Johnny, musical instrument consisting of a pole ornamented with a canopy (pavillon), a crescent, and other shapes hung with bells and metal jingling objects, and often surmounted by horsetails. It possibly originated as the staff of a Central Asian shaman, and it was part of the Turkish

René Clair: Early life and first films: Subsequently, in such films as Un Chapeau de paille d’Italie, based on the farce by Eugène Labiche, Clair combined the avant-garde and the popular, modernity and tradition, in an original way. During this time he also published a novel, Adams (1926), written in a cerebral and elliptical style.

Disney Company: Continuing expansion: ABC, Pixar, Marvel Entertainment, and Lucasfilm: …was replaced as CEO by Bob Chapek, who had been in charge of the company’s parks, experiences, and products division. After several quarters of declining financial performance and what the board of directors viewed as strategic missteps, Chapek was removed in late 2022 and and Iger returned to the helm,…

chapel, small, intimate place of worship. The name was originally applied to the shrine in which the kings of France preserved the cape (late Latin cappella, diminutive of cappa) of St. Martin. By tradition, this garment had been torn into two pieces by St. Martin of Tours (c. 316–397) that he

Children of the Chapel, prominent and long-lived company of boy actors that was active during most of the 16th and early 17th centuries in England. The troupe was originally composed of boy choristers affiliated with the Chapel Royal in London who first performed during the reign of Henry IV. From

Chapel Hill, town, Orange county, central North Carolina, U.S., about 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Durham and some 25 miles (40 km) northwest of Raleigh; with these two cities it constitutes one of the state’s major urban areas, the Research Triangle. It was founded in 1792 and named for the

Henry Cooke: …was a chorister in the Chapel Royal. During the English Civil Wars (1642–51) he fought for Charles I, whence his title, “Captain” Cooke. After the Restoration (1660) he became master of the children in the Chapel Royal, with the task of rebuilding the choir. His ability to choose the right…

gastronomy: The great French chefs: brothers Jean and Pierre, and Alain Chapel invented a free-form style of cooking (named nouvelle cuisine by the French restaurant critics Henri Gault and Christian Millau). Their style disregarded the codification of Escoffier and replaced it with a philosophy rather than a structured system of rules, creating not a school…

Jean Chapelain was a French literary critic and poet who attempted to apply empirical standards to literary criticism. Chapelain’s approach was a challenge to others of his day who appealed in doctrinaire fashion to classical Greek authorities. His critical views were advanced primarily in short

Ahmed Sefrioui: His first volume, Le Chapelet d’ambre (1949; “The Amber Beads”), consists of 14 short pieces dealing with the lives of those unassimilated into French colonial culture. He wrote of Qurʾānic students (he had been one in his youth), of donkey drivers, pilgrims, artisans, shopkeepers, vagabonds, and mystics. A…

Jean Le Chapelier was a French Revolutionary leader who in 1791 introduced in the National Assembly the Loi (“Law”) Le Chapelier, which made any association of workers or of employers illegal. In force until 1884, the law actually affected only workers, who found it much more difficult to conceal

France: Restructuring France: …economic marketplace as individuals, the Le Chapelier Law of June 1791 (named after reformer Jean Le Chapelier) banned workers’ associations and strikes. The precepts of economic individualism extended to rural life as well. In theory, peasants and landlords were now free to cultivate their fields as they wished, regardless of…

Henri Matisse: Riviera years of Henri Matisse: …of planning and execution, his Chapelle du Rosaire for the local Dominican nuns, one of whom had nursed him during his nearly fatal illness in 1941. He had begun by agreeing to design some stained-glass windows, had gone on to do murals, and had wound up by designing nearly everything…

Adrien Brody: Television: He later starred in Chapelwaite (2021), a miniseries based on Stephen King’s short story “Jerusalem’s Lot,” about a sea captain in the 1850s who returns to his family home and discovers that it may be haunted. Also in 2021 Brody earned praise—and later an Emmy nomination—for his portrayal of…

Julian Fellowes: …Romeo and Juliet (2013); and The Chaperone (2018). He also published the novels Snobs (2004) and Past Imperfect (2008) and publicly acknowledged that he had written “bodice-ripping” romance novels under pseudonyms, notably Rebecca Greville and Alexander Merrant. His interactive narrative Belgravia (2016) is a serialized novel initially released as a…

peninsular, any of the colonial residents of Latin America from the 16th through the early 19th centuries who had been born in Spain. The name refers to the Iberian Peninsula. Among the American-born in Mexico the peninsulars were contemptuously called gachupines (“those with spurs”) and in South

Harry Chapin was an American singer-guitarist who became as well known for his humanitarian efforts—particularly his antihunger crusade—as for his music. Born into a musical family from the Brooklyn Heights section of New York City, Chapin played in bands with his brothers and made documentary

Harry Chapin was an American singer-guitarist who became as well known for his humanitarian efforts—particularly his antihunger crusade—as for his music. Born into a musical family from the Brooklyn Heights section of New York City, Chapin played in bands with his brothers and made documentary

boxing: Boxing in art, literature, and film: …boxing include Thomas Eakins and James Chapin, both of whom ably rendered the movement, power, and grace of men boxing, as well as the fatigue and pathos that often attends the aftermath.

chaplain, originally a priest or minister who had charge of a chapel, now an ordained member of the clergy who is assigned to a special ministry. The title dates to the early centuries of the Christian church. In the 4th century, chaplains (Latin cappellani) were so called because they kept St.

medal: The Baroque period: …the Art Nouveau, founded by Jules-Clément Chaplain (1839–1909) and Louis Oscar Roty (1846–1911).

floral decoration: Forms of floral decoration: …worn around the head, a chaplet. Garlands draped in loops are called festoons or swags. The origin of these forms is unknown, but evidence of their use dates from ancient times and is not restricted to any particular culture.

military technology: Cast bronze muzzle-loaders: …and small wrought-iron fixtures called chaplets were used to hold the core precisely in place. These were cast into the bronze and remained a part of the gun. Boring produced more accurate weapons and improved the quality of the bronze, since impurities in the molten metal, which gravitate toward the…

Dan Aykroyd: Later roles: Robert Redford; Richard Attenborough’s Chaplin (1992), starring Robert Downey, Jr., in the title role; Coneheads (1993), with Curtin and fellow original SNL cast member Laraine Newman; and Tommy Boy (1995), featuring SNL’s Chris Farley and David Spade. Also in 1995 Aykroyd was in Michael Moore

Charlie Chaplin was a British comedian, producer, writer, director, and composer who is widely regarded as the greatest comic artist of the screen and one of the most important figures in motion-picture history. (Read Lillian Gish’s 1929 Britannica essay on silent film.) Chaplin was named after his

Sid Chaplin was a British novelist and short-story writer noted for his mastery of detail and local colour in his depictions of working-class life. The son of a coal miner, Chaplin began working in the mines at age 15 and continued to do so while obtaining an education from the Worker’s Educational

Sid Chaplin was a British novelist and short-story writer noted for his mastery of detail and local colour in his depictions of working-class life. The son of a coal miner, Chaplin began working in the mines at age 15 and continued to do so while obtaining an education from the Worker’s Educational

Charlie Chaplin was a British comedian, producer, writer, director, and composer who is widely regarded as the greatest comic artist of the screen and one of the most important figures in motion-picture history. (Read Lillian Gish’s 1929 Britannica essay on silent film.) Chaplin was named after his

Orange: Orange is the seat of Chapman University (established 1861 in Los Angeles, relocated 1954) and a community college (1985). Inc. city, 1888. Pop. (2010) 136,416; (2020) 139,911.

Purbeck: …ridges, secluded coves (such as Chapman’s Pool along the south coast), marshes, and forests, was long recognized as a smuggler’s haven.

zebra: quagga chapmani (Chapman’s zebra), E. quagga burchellii (Burchell’s zebra), and E. quagga quagga (quagga, which is extinct). The mountain zebra is made up of two subspecies: E. zebra hartmannae (Hartmann’s mountain zebra) and E. zebra zebra (Cape Mountain zebra).

Carrie Chapman Catt was an American feminist leader who led the women’s rights movement for more than 25 years, culminating in the adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment (for women’s suffrage) to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Carrie Lane grew up in Ripon, Wisconsin, and from 1866 in Charles City,

Frank M. Chapman was an American ornithologist famous for his extensive and detailed studies of the life histories, geographic distribution, and systematic relationships of North and South American birds. A self-taught ornithologist, Chapman was appointed assistant curator of ornithology and

Frank M. Chapman was an American ornithologist famous for his extensive and detailed studies of the life histories, geographic distribution, and systematic relationships of North and South American birds. A self-taught ornithologist, Chapman was appointed assistant curator of ornithology and

George Chapman was an English poet and dramatist, whose translation of Homer long remained the standard English version. Chapman attended the University of Oxford but took no degree. By 1585 he was working in London for the wealthy commoner Sir Ralph Sadler and probably traveled to the Low

Graham Chapman was a British comedian and writer who was a founding member of the Monty Python troupe, which set a standard during the 1970s for its quirky parodies and wacky humour on television and later in films. Chapman grew up in Leicestershire and began acting while in grammar school. He

Graham Chapman was a British comedian and writer who was a founding member of the Monty Python troupe, which set a standard during the 1970s for its quirky parodies and wacky humour on television and later in films. Chapman grew up in Leicestershire and began acting while in grammar school. He

football: Strategy and tactics: Between the wars, Herbert Chapman, the astute manager of London’s Arsenal club, created the WM formation, featuring five defenders and five attackers: three backs and two halves in defensive roles, and two inside forwards assisting the three attacking forwards. Chapman’s system withdrew the midfield center-half into defense in…

John Jay Chapman was an American poet, dramatist, and critic who attacked the get-rich-quick morality of the post-Civil War “Gilded Age” in political action and in his writings. Ancestors on both sides of his family had distinguished themselves in antislavery and other causes, and he sought to

Maria Weston Chapman was an American abolitionist who was the principal lieutenant of the radical antislavery leader William Lloyd Garrison. Maria Weston spent several years of her youth living with the family of an uncle in England, where she received a good education. From 1828 to 1830 she was

Mark David Chapman is an American criminal who fatally shot John Lennon on December 8, 1980. He received a sentence of 20 years to life and was repeatedly denied parole. Chapman grew up in Decatur, Georgia, and as a teenager he developed an obsession with the Beatles, especially Lennon. While in

Sydney Chapman was an English mathematician and physicist noted for his research in geophysics. Chapman was educated at Victorian University of Manchester and at Trinity College, Cambridge. One of his earliest scientific contributions was to modify Maxwell’s kinetic theory of gases, thereby

Tracy Chapman is an American singer-songwriter who quickly rose to fame in the late 1980s as a result of the phenomenal overnight success of her eponymous debut album, which sold some one million copies within two weeks of its release in 1988, partly as a result of the broad appeal of its lead

showboat: The British-born actor William Chapman built the first showboat, the “Floating Theatre” (14 by 100 feet [4 by 32 m]), at Pittsburgh in 1831. He and his family floated from landing to landing, playing dramas such as The Stranger, by August von Kotzebue, and William Shakespeare’s Taming of…

geomagnetic field: The magnetopause current: Farther still from Earth, at about 10 Re along the Earth–Sun line, is yet another current system that affects the surface field and profoundly changes the nature of Earth’s field in space. This system is called the magnetopause current, or Chapman-Ferraro current system…

salad: …bread rubbed with garlic, a chapon, is sometimes tossed with the salad to season it. Caesar salad, invented in Tijuana, Mexico, in the 1920s, is a green salad of romaine with a highly seasoned dressing of pounded anchovies, olive oil, lemon juice, egg, and Parmesan cheese, garnished with croutons.

Native American art: Mexico and Middle America: …region is the use of chapopote, a native asphalt commonly applied to clay figurines as a decoration; occasionally, chapopote entirely covers the figures, while in other examples it is used to decorate only the face, mouth, or eyes.

Chappaquiddick incident, incident on Chappaquiddick Island, Massachusetts, U.S., that occurred July 18–19, 1969, in which Mary Jo Kopechne died in a car driven off a bridge by U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy. The youngest of nine children of ambitious parents, Kennedy’s long life of public service was

Edgartown: The town comprises Chappaquiddick Island and the eastern tip of the island of Martha’s Vineyard. The oldest settlement on the island, Edgartown dates from 1642 and was incorporated in 1671 and named for Edgar, son of James II of England; the town had previously been called Nunnepog (Algonquian…

Claude Chappe was a French engineer and cleric who converted an old idea into a reality by inventing the semaphore visual telegraph. His brother Ignace Chappe (1760–1829), a member of the Legislative Assembly during the French Revolution, strongly supported Claude’s proposal for a visual signal

Claude Chappe: …semaphore (a word derived by Chappe from the Greek for “bearing a sign”). Each arm of the semaphore could assume seven clearly visible angular positions, making possible 49 combinations that were assigned to the alphabet and a number of other symbols. In August 1794 the Chappe semaphore brought to Paris…

Eliza Emily Chappell Porter was an American educator and welfare worker, remembered especially for the numerous schools she helped establish in almost every region of the United States. Eliza Chappell began teaching school at age 16, and after moving with her mother to Rochester, New York, in 1828

Dave Chappelle: …channel Comedy Central to produce Chappelle’s Show, which he created with Brennan. The show—which featured Chappelle introducing sketches in front of a live audience and usually ended with a musical performance by a hip-hop or rhythm and blues artist—featured biting political and cultural satire that was leavened by a playful…

Dave Chappelle is an American comedian and actor who was best known for cocreating, writing, and starring in the groundbreaking television sketch comedy program Chappelle’s Show (2003–06). Chappelle’s childhood was split between Silver Spring, Maryland, where his mother taught at various local

Dave Chappelle is an American comedian and actor who was best known for cocreating, writing, and starring in the groundbreaking television sketch comedy program Chappelle’s Show (2003–06). Chappelle’s childhood was split between Silver Spring, Maryland, where his mother taught at various local

Hugh Jackman: Later roles: …law-enforcement robot in the thriller Chappie and portrayed a pirate in the children’s adventure Pan (both 2015), the latter of which purported to trace the origins of J.M. Barrie’s character Peter Pan. He costarred as a ski-jumping coach in the inspirational film Eddie the Eagle (2016), about the performance of…

Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games: Notable Events from the Vancouver Winter Games: February 15:

Patricia Grace: The novel Chappy (2015) follows a young man’s quest to learn more about his family’s history, including the remarkable story of his Māori grandmother and Japanese grandfather. In 2021 Grace published the memoir From the Centre: A Writer’s Life.

Chapra, city, western Bihar state, northeastern India. It lies near the junction of the Ghaghara and Ganges (Ganga) rivers. Chapra grew in importance as a river mart in the 18th century when the Dutch, French, Portuguese, and British established saltpetre refineries there. It was constituted a

history of Europe: Ecclesiastical organization: …cathedral, was staffed by a chapter (a body of clergy) and headed by a dean, who was specifically charged with administering the cathedral and its property. The chapter was not usually the bishop’s administrative staff and thus sometimes found itself in conflict with the bishop. Struggles between bishop and chapter…

Businesses, as well as sole proprietors or individuals, sometimes find themselves buried in a mountain of debt that can be blamed on everything from poor financial management to a shift in consumer spending or an economic downturn. Sometimes a sales slowdown, poor cash flow, and over-leveraging can

Jared Leto: Requiem for a Dream and other roles from the 2000s: …in the widely panned film Chapter 27 (2007).

When financial issues become so overwhelming that it looks like there’s no way out, a chapter 7 bankruptcy filing might be the answer. As far as bankruptcies are concerned, it’s considered a quick and relatively efficient way to get rid of eligible debts—a reset, of sorts. But “eligible” is a key

circus: History: …the first instance of a Chapter Eleven bankruptcy in the United States.

chapter house, chamber or building, often reached through the cloister, in which the chapter, or heads of monastic bodies, assemble to transact business. Chapter houses occur in various forms. In England the chapter houses of the medieval cathedrals were originally rectangular in plan (e.g.,

Western painting: International Gothic: ) Subsequently, however, in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (probably executed c. 1370) there was strong Germanic influence, which has been tentatively compared with the work of Master Bertram at Hamburg.

serial, a novel or other work appearing (as in a magazine) in parts at intervals. Novels written in the 19th century were commonly published as serials. Many works by Charles Dickens, George Eliot, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, and others first appeared serially in such magazines

Frank Herbert: …Heretics of Dune (1984), and Chapterhouse: Dune (1985). These books followed Paul Atreides and House Atreides through future millennia. In the late 1990s Herbert’s son Brian began collaborating with Kevin J. Anderson on books set in the world of Dune, employing some of the elder Herbert’s notes. The first, Dune:…

Henry Adams: These articles were published in Chapters of Erie and Other Essays (1871). The mediocrity of the nation’s “statesmen” constantly irritated him. Adams liked to repeat Pres. Ulysses S. Grant’s remark that Venice would be a fine city if it were drained.

Israel Abrahams: …works on Jewish writings is Chapters on Jewish Literature (1899), a survey of the period from the fall of Jerusalem in ad 70 to the death of the Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn in 1786.

Henri-Michel-Antoine Chapu was a French sculptor and portrait medallist whose works were softened expressions of the Neoclassical tradition. Early in his career Chapu spent five years in Italy after winning the Prix de Rome in 1855. Success came to him with his statue “Mercury” (1861) and his

Chapultepec, rocky hill about 200 feet (60 meters) high on the western edge of Mexico City that has long played a prominent role in the history of Mexico. The Aztecs fortified the hill but were expelled by neighboring peoples; after their consolidation of power in the Valley of Mexico about 1325,

National Museum of History, in Mexico City, an offshoot of the National Museum of Anthropology (founded 1825). In 1940 the National Historical Museum became a separate institution specializing in Mexican history from the Spanish conquest in the 1500s to the promulgation of the constitution of 1917.

Chapultepec: Maximilian also beautified the surrounding park, today a principal cultural and recreational center of the city. Among its features are several museums, including the world-famous Museo Nacional de Antropología, designed by Pedro Ramírez Vázquez and built in 1963–64.

El Salvador: Civil war: …the two parties signed the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City on January 16, 1992. By that time more than 75,000 people (mostly noncombatants) had lost their lives, the economy was in shambles, and massive damage to the infrastructure was evident everywhere.

Chapultepec Zoo, zoo located in Mexico City on the original site of Montezuma’s game reserve. Opened in 1926, the zoo is administered by the municipal government. Its grounds cover 13.5 hectares (33 acres) and house nearly 2,000 specimens of about 280 species, mostly in Victorian-style caging. The

Battle of Chapultepec, an engagement of the Mexican-American War that occurred September 12–14, 1847. The fortified castle of Chapultepec, commissioned by Spanish Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez in 1785, sat on a rocky hill overlooking causeways leading to Mexico City’s two western gates. It was the

Jefferson Airplane: The band was started in the mid-1960s by former folk musicians; in late 1966, however, edgy-voiced ex-model Grace Slick and the harder, rumbling rhythms pouring from bassist Jack…

South America: Indians: …of foot plow called the chaquitaclla. Highland soils also were improved by constructing long earthen irrigation canals or (in the Central Andes) some of the world’s most elaborate and beautiful stone-walled terracing. In most parts of the Andes, areas of high population density were organized into chiefdoms—such as the Chibcha…